One of the more influential ideas originated in the theoretical work of
Carl Jung, as published in the book
Psychological Types. The original German language edition,
Psychologische Typen, was first published by , Zurich, in 1921. Jung's theory of psychological types is based on the assumption that there are different functions of consciousness and attitudes of consciousness. Typologies such as
Socionics, the
MBTI assessment, and the
Keirsey Temperament Sorter have their roots in Jungian theory. Jung's interest in typology grew from his desire to reconcile the theories of
Sigmund Freud and
Alfred Adler, and to define how his own perspective differed from theirs. Jung wrote, "In attempting to answer this question, I came across the problem of types; for it is one's psychological type which from the outset determines and limits a person's judgment." (Jung, [1961] 1989:207) He concluded that Freud's theory was extraverted and Adler's introverted. (Jung, [1921] 1971: par. 91) Jung became convinced that acrimony between the Adlerian and Freudian camps was due to this unrecognized existence of different fundamental psychological
attitudes, which led Jung "to conceive the two controversial theories of neurosis as manifestations of a type-antagonism." (Jung, 1966: par. 64)
Four functions of consciousness In the book Jung categorized people into primary types of
psychological function. Jung proposed the existence of two dichotomous pairs of cognitive functions: • The "
rational" (judging) functions:
thinking and
feeling • The "
irrational" (perceiving) functions:
sensation and
intuition Jung went on to suggest that these functions are expressed in either an introverted or extraverted form. According to Jung, the psyche is an apparatus for adaptation and orientation, and consists of a number of different psychic functions. Among these he distinguishes four basic functions: •
sensation—perception by means of immediate apprehension of the visible relationship between subject and object •
intuition—perception of processes in the background; e.g. unconscious drives and/or motivations of other people •
thinking—function of intellectual cognition; the forming of logical conclusions •
feeling—function of subjective estimation, value oriented thinking Thinking and feeling functions are rational, while sensation and intuition are nonrational. According to Jung, rationality consists of figurative thoughts, feelings or actions with reason — a point of view based on a set of criteria and standards. Nonrationality is not based in reason. Jung notes that elementary facts are also nonrational, not because they are illogical but because, as thoughts, they are not judgments.
Attitudes: extraversion and introversion Analytical psychology distinguishes several psychological types or temperaments. •
Extravert (Jung's spelling, although some dictionaries prefer the variant
extrovert) •
Introvert Extraversion means "outward-turning" and introversion means "inward-turning". These specific definitions vary somewhat from the popular usage of the words. The preferences for extraversion and introversion are often called
attitudes. Each of the cognitive functions can operate in the external world of behavior, action, people, and things (
extraverted attitude) or the internal world of ideas and reflection (
introverted attitude). People who prefer extraversion draw their energy toward objective, external data. They seek to experience and base their judgments on data from the outer world. Conversely, those who prefer introversion draw their energy toward subjective, internal data. They seek to experience and base their judgments on data from the inner world.
Thinking and
feeling are rational (judgment) functions, meaning they form judgments or make decisions. The thinking and feeling functions are both used to make rational decisions, based on the data received from their information-gathering functions (sensing or intuition). Those who prefer thinking tend to judge things from a more detached standpoint, measuring the decision by what is logical, causal, consistent, and functional. Those who prefer the feeling function tend to form judgments by evaluating the situation; deciding the worth of the situation. They measure the situation by what is pleasant or unpleasant, liked or disliked, harmonious or inharmonious, etc. As noted already, people who prefer the thinking function do not necessarily, in the everyday sense, "think better" than their feeling counterparts; the opposite preference is considered an equally rational way of coming to decisions (and, in any case, the Jung's typology is a discernment of preference, not ability). Similarly, those who prefer the feeling function do not necessarily have "better" emotional reactions than their thinking counterparts.
Dominant function All four functions are used at different times depending on the circumstances. However, one of the four functions is generally used more dominantly and proficiently than the other three, in a more conscious and confident way. According to Jung the dominant function is supported by two auxiliary functions. (In MBTI publications the first auxiliary is usually called the auxiliary or secondary function and the second auxiliary function is usually called the tertiary function.) The fourth and least conscious function is always the opposite of the dominant function. Jung called this the "inferior function" and Myers sometimes also called it the "shadow function". Jung's model suggests that the superordinate dimension of personality is introversion and extraversion. Introverts are likely to relate to the external world by listening, reflecting, being reserved, and having focused interests. Extraverts, on the other hand, are adaptable and in tune with the external world. They prefer interacting with the outer world by talking, actively participating, being sociable, expressive, and having a variety of interests. Jung (1921) also identified two other dimensions of personality: Intuition - Sensing and Thinking - Feeling. Sensing types tend to focus on the reality of present situations, pay close attention to detail, and are concerned with practicalities. Intuitive types focus on envisioning a wide range of possibilities to a situation and favor ideas, concepts, and theories over data. Thinking types use objective and logical reasoning in making their decisions, are more likely to analyze stimuli in a logical and detached manner, be more emotionally stable, and score higher on intelligence. Feeling types make judgments based on subjective and personal values. In interpersonal decision-making, feeling types tend to emphasize compromise to ensure a beneficial solution for everyone. They also tend to be somewhat more neurotic than thinking types. The worrier's tendency to experience a fearful affect, could be manifested in Jung's feeling type. ==See also==