Practical Ethics Singer's
Practical Ethics (1979) is a book in
applied ethics, where he systematically applies a
preference utilitarian framework to a wide range of contemporary moral issues, such as equality, global poverty, euthanasia, ethical vegetarianism, environmental ethics, civil disobedience and violence. He challenges readers to reconsider their moral intuitions and to adopt a more rational and consistent ethical stance, often leading to controversial conclusions. The book analyzes why and how living beings' interests should be weighed. According to Singer, ethics requires an impartial, "universal" perspective and proposes the principle of
equal consideration of interests. This does not mean equal treatment, as different interests (e.g., avoiding pain versus cultivating abilities) warrant different treatment, and factors like diminishing
marginal utility can affect how similar interests are treated (e.g., a starving person's interest in food over a slightly hungry person's). The fundamental criterion for a being to have interests warranting equal consideration is
sentience, defined as the capacity for suffering or happiness. The conclusion is that one must adopt the course of action that likely maximises the interests of those affected. Singer regards Kantian universalisation as unjust to animals.
Effective altruism and world poverty in 2015 Singer's ideas have contributed to the rise of effective altruism. He argues that people should try not only to reduce suffering but to reduce it in the most effective manner possible. While Singer has previously written at length about the moral imperative to reduce poverty and eliminate the suffering of nonhuman animals, particularly in the
meat industry, he writes about how the effective altruism movement is doing these things more effectively in his 2015 book
The Most Good You Can Do. He is a board member of
Animal Charity Evaluators, a charity evaluator used by many members of the effective altruism community which recommends the most cost-effective animal advocacy charities and interventions. His own organisation, The Life You Can Save (TLYCS), recommends a selection of charities deemed by charity evaluators such as
GiveWell to be the most effective when it comes to helping those in extreme poverty. TLYCS was founded after Singer released his 2009
eponymous book, in which he argues more generally in favour of giving to charities that help to end global poverty. In particular, he expands upon some of the arguments made in his 1972 essay "
Famine, Affluence, and Morality", in which he posits that citizens of rich nations are morally obligated to give at least some of their disposable income to charities that help the global poor. He supports this using the "drowning child analogy", which states that most people would rescue a drowning child from a pond, even if it meant that their expensive clothes were ruined. He argues that similarly, lives could be saved, notably by donating to effective charities, and that as a result a significant portion of the money spent on unnecessary possessions should instead be donate to charity. Since November 2009, Singer is a member of
Giving What We Can, an international organisation whose members pledge to give at least 10% of their income to effective charities.
Animal liberation and speciesism in 2013 Published in 1975,
Animal Liberation has been cited as a formative influence on leaders of the modern
animal liberation movement. The central argument of the book is an expansion of the
utilitarian concept that "the greatest good of the greatest number" is the only measure of good or ethical behaviour, and Singer believes that there is no reason not to apply this principle to other animals, arguing that the boundary between human and "animal" is completely arbitrary. For example, there are far more differences between a
great ape and an
oyster than between a human and a great ape, and yet the former two are lumped together as "animals", whereas we are considered "human" in a way that supposedly differentiates us from all other "animals". He popularised the term "
speciesism", which had been coined by English writer
Richard D. Ryder to describe the practice of privileging humans over other animals, and therefore argues in favour of the equal consideration of interests of all sentient beings. In
Animal Liberation, Singer argues in favour of
vegetarianism and against most
animal experimentation. He stated in a 2006 interview that he does not eat meat and that he has been a vegetarian since 1971. He also said that he has "gradually become increasingly
vegan" and that "I am largely vegan but I'm a flexible vegan. I don't go to the supermarket and buy non-vegan stuff for myself. But when I'm traveling or going to other people's places I will be quite happy to eat vegetarian rather than vegan." In 2022, Singer stated that he is not fully vegan because he occasionally consumes
oysters,
mussels, and
clams due to their lack of a central nervous system. According to Singer,
meat-eating can be ethically permissible if "farms really give the animals good lives, and then humanely kill them, preferably without transporting them to slaughterhouses or disturbing them. In
Animal Liberation, I don't really say that it's the killing that makes [meat-eating] wrong, it's the suffering." In an article for the online publication
Chinadialogue, Singer called Western-style meat production cruel, unhealthy, and damaging to the ecosystem. He rejected the idea that the method was necessary to meet the population's increasing demand, explaining that animals in
factory farms have to eat food grown explicitly for them, and they burn up most of the food's energy just to breathe and keep their bodies warm. In a 2010
Guardian article he titled, "Fish: the forgotten victims on our plate", Singer drew attention to the welfare of fish. He quoted author Alison Mood's startling statistics from a report she wrote, which was released on fishcount.org.uk just a month before the
Guardian article. Singer states that she "has put together what may well be the first-ever systematic estimate of the size of the annual global capture of wild fish. It is, she calculates, in the order of one trillion, although it could be as high as 2.7tn." Some chapters of
Animal Liberation are dedicated to criticising testing on animals. Unlike groups such as
PETA, Singer is willing to accept testing when there is a clear benefit for medicine. In November 2006, Singer appeared on the BBC programme
Monkeys, Rats and Me: Animal Testing and said that he felt that
Tipu Aziz's experiments on monkeys for research into treating Parkinson's disease could be justified. Whereas Singer has continued since the publication of
Animal Liberation to promote vegetarianism and veganism, he has been much less vocal in recent years on the subject of animal experimentation. Singer has defended some of the actions of the
Animal Liberation Front such as the stealing of footage from Thomas Gennarelli's laboratory in May 1984 (as shown in the documentary
Unnecessary Fuss) but condemned other actions such as the use of explosives by some animal-rights activists, and sees the freeing of captive animals as largely futile when they are easily replaced. Singer features in the 2017 documentary
Empathy, directed by Ed Antoja, which aims to promote a more respectful way of life towards all animals. The documentary won the "Public Choice Award" of the Greenpeace Film Festival. Singer has frequently collaborated on op-eds and otherwise with animal rights advocate
Karen Dawn.
Roger Scruton was critical of the
consequentialist, utilitarian approach of Singer. Scruton alleged that Singer's works, including
Animal Liberation (1975), "contain little or no philosophical argument. They derive their radical moral conclusions from a vacuous utilitarianism that counts the pain and pleasure of all living things as equally significant and that ignores just about everything that has been said in our philosophical tradition about the real distinction between persons and animals." Furthermore, Singer and
Katarzyna de Lazari-Radek (the co-author of the book) argue that
evolutionary debunking arguments can be used to demonstrate that it is more rational to take the impartial standpoint of "the point of view of the universe", as opposed to egoism—pursuing one's own self-interest—because the existence of egoism is more likely to be the product of evolution by natural selection, rather than because it is correct, whereas taking an impartial standpoint and equally considering the interests of all sentient beings is in conflict with what we would expect from natural selection, meaning that it is more likely that impartiality in ethics is the correct stance to pursue. He also spoke publicly for the legalisation of
abortion in Australia. In
A Darwinian Left, Singer outlines a plan for the
political left to adapt to the lessons of
evolutionary biology. He says that
evolutionary psychology suggests that humans naturally tend to be self-interested. He further argues that the evidence that selfish tendencies are natural must not be taken as evidence that selfishness is "right". He concludes that
game theory (the mathematical study of strategy) and experiments in psychology offer hope that self-interested people would make short-term sacrifices for the good of others, if society provides the right conditions. Singer argues that although humans possess selfish, competitive tendencies naturally, they have a substantial capacity for
cooperation that also has been selected for during
human evolution. Singer's writing in
Greater Good magazine, published by the
Greater Good Science Center of the
University of California, Berkeley, explores scientific studies on why people are compassionate, selfless, and capable of forming peaceful relationships. Singer has criticized the United States for receiving "oil from countries run by dictators ... who pocket most of the" financial gains, thus "keeping the people in poverty". Singer believes that the wealth of these countries "should belong to the people" within them rather than their "de facto government. In paying dictators for their oil, we are in effect buying stolen goods, and helping to keep people in poverty." Singer holds that America "should be doing more to assist people in extreme poverty". He is disappointed in U.S. foreign aid policy, deeming it "a very small proportion of our GDP, less than a quarter of some other affluent nations." Singer maintains that little "private philanthropy from the U.S." is "directed to helping people in extreme poverty, although there are some exceptions, most notably, of course, the
Gates Foundation." Singer describes himself as not
anti-capitalist, stating in a 2010 interview with the New Left Project: "Capitalism is very far from a perfect system, but so far we have yet to find anything that clearly does a better job of meeting human needs than a regulated capitalist economy coupled with a welfare and health care system that meets the basic needs of those who do not thrive in the capitalist economy." Singer added that "[i]f we ever do find a better system, I'll be happy to call myself an anti-capitalist." Singer is opposed to the death penalty, claiming that it does not effectively deter the crimes for which it is the punitive measure, and that he cannot see any other justification for it. In 2010, Singer signed a petition renouncing his
right of return to Israel because it is "a form of racist privilege that abets the colonial oppression of the Palestinians." Singer called on
Jill Stein to withdraw from the
2016 United States presidential election in states that were close between
Hillary Clinton and
Donald Trump on the grounds that the stakes were "too high". He argued against the view that there was no significant difference between Clinton and Trump, whilst also saying that he would not advocate such a tactic in Australia's electoral system, which allows for ranking of preferences. In 2021, Singer described the
war on drugs as an expensive, ineffective and extremely harmful policy.
Disability and euthanasia in 2007 Singer has argued that the right to life is essentially tied to a being's capacity to hold preferences. In
Practical Ethics, Singer argues in favour of
abortion rights on the grounds that fetuses are neither rational nor self-aware, and can therefore hold no preferences. As a result, he argues that the preference of a mother to have an
abortion automatically takes precedence. In sum, Singer argues that a fetus lacks
personhood. Similar to his argument for abortion rights, Singer argues that newborns lack the essential characteristics of personhood—"rationality, autonomy, and self-consciousness"—and therefore "killing a newborn baby is never equivalent to killing a person, that is, a being who wants to go on living". Singer has clarified that his "view of when life begins isn't very different from that of opponents of abortion." He deems it not "unreasonable to hold that an individual human life begins at conception. If it doesn't, then it begins about 14 days later, when it is no longer possible for the embryo to divide into twins or other multiples." Singer disagrees with abortion rights opponents in that he does not "think that the fact that an embryo is a living human being is sufficient to show that it is wrong to kill it." Singer wishes "to see American jurisprudence, and the national abortion debate, take up the question of which capacities a human being needs to have in order for it to be wrong to kill it" as well as "when, in the development of the early human being, these capacities are present." Singer classifies
euthanasia as
voluntary,
involuntary, or
non-voluntary. Voluntary euthanasia is that to which the subject consents. He argues in favour of voluntary euthanasia and some forms of non-voluntary euthanasia, including infanticide in certain instances, but opposes involuntary euthanasia. Bioethicists associated with the
disability rights and
disability studies communities have argued that his epistemology is based on
ableist conceptions of disability. Singer's positions have also been criticised by some advocates for disability rights and
right-to-life supporters, concerned with what they see as his attacks upon
human dignity. Religious critics have argued that Singer's ethics ignores and undermines the traditional notion of the
sanctity of life. Singer agrees and believes the notion of the sanctity of life ought to be discarded as outdated, unscientific, and irrelevant to understanding problems in contemporary bioethics. Disability rights activists have held many protests against Singer at Princeton University and at his lectures over the years. Singer has replied that many people judge him based on secondhand summaries and short quotations taken out of context, not on his books or articles, and that his aim is to elevate the status of animals, not to lower that of humans. American publisher
Steve Forbes ceased his donations to
Princeton University in 1999 because of Singer's appointment to a prestigious professorship. Nazi-hunter
Simon Wiesenthal wrote to organisers of a Swedish book fair to which Singer was invited that "[a] professor of morals ... who justifies the right to kill handicapped newborns ... is in my opinion unacceptable for representation at your level." Conservative psychiatrist
Theodore Dalrymple wrote in 2010 that Singerian moral universalism is "preposterous—psychologically, theoretically, and practically". In 2002, disability rights activist
Harriet McBryde Johnson debated Singer, challenging his belief that it is morally permissible to euthanise newborn children with severe disabilities. "Unspeakable Conversations", Johnson's account of her encounters with Singer and the pro-euthanasia movement, was published in the
New York Times Magazine in 2003. In 2015, Singer debated Archbishop
Anthony Fisher on the legalisation of euthanasia at
Sydney Town Hall. Singer rejected arguments that legalising euthanasia would result in a slippery slope where the practice might become widespread as a means to remove undesirable people for financial or other motives. Singer has experienced the complexities of some of these questions in his own life. His mother had
Alzheimer's disease. He said, "I think this has made me see how the issues of someone with these kinds of problems are really very difficult." In an interview with
Ronald Bailey, published in December 2000, he explained that his sister shares the responsibility of making decisions about his mother. He said that, if he were solely responsible, his mother might not continue to live. In 2017, Singer wrote with
Jeff McMahan an
op-ed in which he defends
Anna Stubblefield, who was convicted of aggravated sexual assault against D.J., a man with severe physical disability. Singer and McMahan argued that the judge refused to consider independent evidence that D.J. was indirectly able to communicate, and could have been interrogated. They argued that Anna Stubblefield believed her love to be reciprocal, and that D.J. had still not given sign of hostility towards Stubblefield.
Nathan J. Robinson, founder of
Current Affairs, criticised when Singer and McMahan wrote that even supposing that D.J. is not just physically but also cognitively impaired (which they contest), then D.J. may not even understand the concept of consent, and it "seems reasonable to assume that the experience was pleasurable to him", as "he was capable of struggling to resist." Robinson called this a "rape", and considers that Singer and McMahan's argument implies that it would be permissible to rape or sexually assault sufficiently disabled people as long as they do not try to resist.
Surrogacy In 1985, Singer wrote a book with the physician Deanne Wells arguing that
surrogate motherhood should be allowed and regulated by the state by establishing nonprofit 'State Surrogacy Boards', which would ensure fairness between surrogate mothers and surrogacy-seeking parents. Singer and Wells endorsed both the payment of medical expenses endured by surrogate mothers and an extra "fair fee" to compensate the surrogate mother.
Religion event at
MIT in 2009 Singer was a speaker at the 2012
Global Atheist Convention. He has debated with Christians including
John Lennox and
Dinesh D'Souza. Singer has pointed to the
problem of evil as an objection against the Christian conception of God. He stated: "The evidence of our own eyes makes it more plausible to believe that the world was not created by any god at all. If, however, we insist on believing in divine creation, we are forced to admit that the god who made the world cannot be all-powerful and all good. He must be either evil or a bungler." In keeping with his considerations of nonhuman animals, Singer also takes issue with the
original sin reply to the problem of evil, saying that, "animals also suffer from floods, fires, and droughts, and, since they are not descended from Adam and Eve, they cannot have inherited original sin."
Protests , Brazil, in 2012 In 1989 and 1990, Singer's work was the subject of a number of protests in Germany. A course in ethics led by Hartmut Kliemt at the
University of Duisburg where the main text used was Singer's
Practical Ethics was, according to Singer, "subjected to organised and repeated disruption by protesters objecting to the use of the book on the grounds that in one of its ten chapters it advocates active euthanasia for severely disabled newborn infants". The protests led to the course being shut down. When Singer tried to speak during a lecture at
Saarbrücken, he was interrupted by a group of protesters including advocates for
disability rights. One of the protesters expressed that entering serious discussions would be a tactical error. The same year, Singer was invited to speak in
Marburg at a European symposium on "Bioengineering, Ethics and Mental Disability". The invitation was fiercely attacked by leading intellectuals and organisations in the German media, with an article in
Der Spiegel comparing Singer's positions to
Nazism. Eventually, the symposium was cancelled and Singer's invitation withdrawn. A lecture at the Zoological Institute of the
University of Zurich was interrupted by two groups of protesters. The first group was a group of disabled people who staged a brief protest at the beginning of the lecture. They objected to inviting an advocate of euthanasia to speak. At the end of this protest, when Singer tried to address their concerns, a second group of protesters rose and began chanting
Singer raus! Singer raus! ("Singer out!" in German) When Singer attempted to respond, a protester jumped on stage and grabbed his glasses, and the host ended the lecture. Singer explains "my views are not threatening to anyone, even minimally", and says that some groups play on the anxieties of those who hear only keywords that are understandably worrying (given the constant fears of ever repeating the Holocaust) if taken with any less than the full context of his belief system. In 1991, Singer was due to speak along with
R. M. Hare and at the 15th
International Wittgenstein Symposium in
Kirchberg am Wechsel, Austria. Singer has stated that threats were made to Adolf Hübner, then the president of the Austrian Ludwig Wittgenstein Society, that the conference would be disrupted if Singer and Meggle were given a platform. Hübner proposed to the board of the society that Singer's invitation, as well as the invitations of a number of other speakers, be withdrawn. The Society decided to cancel the symposium. In an article originally published in
The New York Review of Books, Singer argued that the protests dramatically increased the amount of coverage he received, saying that "instead of a few hundred people hearing views at lectures in Marburg and Dortmund, several millions read about them or listened to them on television". Despite this, Singer argues that it has led to a difficult intellectual climate, with professors in Germany unable to teach courses on applied ethics and campaigns demanding the resignation of professors who invited Singer to speak. == Recognition ==