Ponosakan language

The locals in North Sulawesi often falsely identify Ponosakan as a Minahasan language, due to the ethnic group's self-identification as a subgroup of Minahasan people. However, there is no doubt among scholars that this language actually belongs to the Gorontalo–Mongondow subgroup. The Gorontalo–Mongondow languages are commonly classified as a part of the Philippine subfamily; Robert Blust specifically includes it in the Greater Central Philippine languages, alongside—among others—Tagalog and Visayan languages. In comparison to other Gorontalo–Mongondow languages, Ponosakan is relatively conservative in terms of phonology and structure. == Demography and distribution ==

Ponosakan is spoken at the eastern end of Gorontalo–Mongondow languages' distribution. This language has been spoken by the Ponosakan people in and around from at least the 17th century. Before World War II, Ponosakan was the most spoken language not only in Belang, but also in several other settlements around it. But even in the 1920s, its number of speakers was already in decline. Influx of migrants from other areas also altered the region's demography; when World War II started, already half of Belang residents were newcomers who did not speak Ponosakan. By the second half of the 20th century, "virtually no ethnic Ponosakans were learning the language anymore". In November 2014, there were reportedly only four elderly people who could still speak Ponosakan fluently. Ponosakan has the fewest speakers among the Gorontalo–Mongondow languages. == Phonology ==

There are 16 consonants and 5 vowels in Ponosakan. In addition, the phoneme only occurs in loanwords. Consonants , , emerged from intervocalic and word-final lenition of earlier *(C)b, *Cd, and *(C)g (*C = any consonant). This type of lenition is still synchronic in Ponosakan: "give (locative focus)", but "give (active focus)"; "depth", but "deep". The lenited result of word-internal *d is less predictable though, as it became either and (but the former reflex is more common than the latter). Similar to Mongondow, the Ponosakan /l/ has the allophone retroflex /ɭ/, which is usually pronounced when adjacent to the front vowels /e/, /i/, /a/, and /u/. However, due to the adjacency of both phonemes and the influence of Manado Malay usage since childhood (which notably only has /l/), both letters might have undergone a phonemic merger, though older people can still barely retain the distinction. In word-final positions, and go silent and leave compensatory lengthening on the vowels. Alongside this, there are isolated instances of long aa on words such as and , which came from earlier sequences *-awa- (*ginawa, *bulawan). == Grammar ==

Pronouns As with other Philippine languages, pronouns in Ponosakan are distinguished by case (nominative, genitive, and oblique); number (singular and plural); and, for the first person plural pronouns, clusivity (inclusive and exclusive). Other than the contrast between the singular and plural forms, Ponosakan also exhibits "count forms" for second and third person pronouns. These forms are always followed by a number, as in 'the three of them' and 'the four of them'. In contrast, plural forms cannot be followed by a number. Both the count and plural forms can be used to represent any number of people, although there is a preference towards using the count forms for smaller numbers. Case markers There are three cases in Ponosakan: nominative, genitive, and oblique. Each case has its own marker, although the same marker is used for both nominative and genitive cases in common nouns. Demonstratives There are three root words for demonstratives in Ponosakan: (1) 'near speaker (whether or not also near addressee)', (2) 'near addressee (but not speaker)', and (3) or 'far from both speaker and addressee'. Examples of usage: : Interrogatives There are at least 16 interrogative words in Ponosakan. Most of them contain one of the following three roots: , , and . The form by itself means 'what', but this root form can also be found in 'when', 'why', 'how much', and 'how many times'. The form when used in isolation means 'where' (used after verbs only), but this base can also be found in 'where', 'how (manner)', and 'which'. The base is prefixed with case markers for personal names to form personal interrogatives (see table 3): 'who (nominative)', 'who (genitive)', and 'to whom (oblique)'; or, for the plural forms, , , and . The only interrogative word which doesn't show any of the above base forms is 'why'. Negators Negation in Ponosakan is found in several forms. The word 'no' negates verbs, adjectives, existence or location. The word 'don't!' is used to negate commands. The word 'not' negates nouns and equational sentences. There are also which means 'don't like, doesn't like' and which means 'I don't know'. == References ==