Early life A distant relative of the Muscovite diplomat
Pyotr Potemkin (1617–1700), Grigory was born in the village of Chizhovo near
Smolensk into a family of middle-income noble landowners. His father,
Alexander Potemkin (1673–1746), was a decorated war veteran. His mother Daria Vasilievna
Kondyreva (1704–1780) was "good-looking, capable and intelligent", though their marriage proved ultimately unhappy. Potemkin received his first name in honour of his father's cousin Grigory Matveevich Kizlovsky, a civil servant who became his
godfather. Historian
Simon Sebag Montefiore has suggested that Kizlovsky fathered Potemkin, who became the centre of attention, heir to the village and the only son among six children. As the son of an (albeit petty) noble family, he grew up with the expectation that he would serve the Russian Empire. After Alexander died in 1746, Daria took charge of the family. In order to achieve a career for her son, and aided by Kizlovsky, the family moved to Moscow, where Potemkin enrolled at a
gymnasium school attached to the
University of Moscow. The young Potemkin became adept at languages and interested in the
Russian Orthodox Church. He enlisted in the army in 1750 at age eleven, in accordance with the custom of noble children. In 1755 a second inspection placed him in the élite
Horse Guards regiment. At this time his net worth amounted to 430 souls (
serfs), equivalent to that of the poorer gentry. His time was taken up with "drinking, gambling, and promiscuous lovemaking", and he fell deep in debt.
Grigory Orlov, one of Catherine's lovers, led a palace coup in June 1762 that ousted the Emperor
Peter III and enthroned Catherine II. Sergeant Potemkin represented his regiment in the revolt. Allegedly, as Catherine reviewed her troops in front of the
Winter Palace before their march to the
Peterhof, she lacked a
sword-knot (or possibly hat plumage), which Potemkin quickly supplied. Potemkin's horse then appeared to refuse to leave her side for several minutes before Potemkin and the horse returned to the ranks. After the coup, Catherine singled out Potemkin for reward and ensured his promotion to second lieutenant. Though Potemkin was among those guarding the ex-
Tsar, it appears that he had no direct involvement in Peter's murder in July. Catherine promoted him again to
Kammerjunker (gentleman of the bedchamber), though he retained his post in the Guards. Potemkin was soon formally presented to the Empress as a talented mimic; his imitation of her was well received.
Courtier and general Although Catherine had not yet taken Potemkin as a lover, it seems likely that she passively—if not actively—encouraged his flirtatious behaviour, including his regular practice of kissing her hand and declaring his love for her: without encouragement, Potemkin could have expected trouble from the Orlovs (Catherine's lover Grigory and his four brothers) who dominated court. Potemkin entered Catherine's circle of advisers, and in 1762 took his only foreign assignment, to Sweden, bearing news of the coup. On his return, he was appointed
Procurator, and won a reputation as a lover. Under unclear circumstances, Potemkin then lost his left eye and fell into a depression. According to legend, Grigory and
Alexei Orlov invited Potemkin to a friendly game of
billiards, then attacked him with their cues "for flirting with Catherine", resulting in Potemkin's eye being damaged during the brawl; the wound then turned septic "after being mistreated by a quack physician". Other sources claim that Potemkin's eye was struck by a ball "during a tennis match". and
jagers. Eighteen months later, Potemkin reappeared, probably summoned by Catherine. Upon his return, "the man once known as
Alcibiades for his wit and beauty was re-nicknamed '
Cyclops'." In the interval, the Ottoman Empire had started the
Russo-Turkish War of 1768 to 1774 and Potemkin was eager to prove himself, writing to Catherine: Potemkin served as Major-General of the
cavalry. He distinguished himself in his first engagement, helping to repulse a band of unruly
Tatar and Turkish horsemen. He fought in Russia's victory at the Battle of Kamenets and the taking of
the town. Potemkin saw action virtually every day, particularly excelling at the Battle of Prashkovsky, after which his commander
Aleksandr Mikhailovich Golitsyn recommended him to Catherine. Potemkin's army, under
Pyotr Rumyantsev, continued its advance. Potemkin fought at the capture of Jurja, a display of courage and skill for which he received the
Order of St. Anna. At the
Battle of Larga, he won the
Order of St. George, third class, and fought well during the rout of the main Turkish force that followed. On leave to St. Petersburg, the Empress invited him to dine with her more than ten times. Back at the front, Potemkin won more military acclaim, but then fell ill; rejecting medicine, he recovered only slowly. After a lull in hostilities in 1772 his movements are unclear, but it seems that he returned to St. Petersburg where he is recorded, perhaps apocryphally, to have been one of Catherine's closest advisers. Though Orlov was replaced as her favourite, it was not Potemkin who benefited.
Alexander Vasilchikov, another Horse-Guardsman, replaced Orlov as the queen's lover. Potemkin returned to war in 1773 as Lieutenant-General to fight in
Silistria, participating in the
siege of the city. It appears that Catherine missed him, and that Potemkin took a December letter from her as a summons. In any case Potemkin returned to St. Petersburg as a war hero.
Favorite of Catherine II Potemkin returned to court in January 1774 expecting to walk into Catherine's arms. The political situation, however, had become complex.
Yemelyan Pugachev had just arisen as a pretender to the throne, and commanded a rebel army thirty thousand strong. In addition, Catherine's son
Paul turned eighteen and began to gain his own support. By late January Potemkin had tired of the impasse and effected (perhaps with encouragement from Catherine) a "melodramatic retreat" into the
Alexander Nevsky Monastery. Catherine relented and had Potemkin brought back in early February 1774, when their relationship became intimate. Several weeks later he had usurped Vasilchikov as Catherine's
favorite, and was given the title of
Adjutant General. His uncouth behavior shocked the court, but Potemkin showed himself capable of suitable formality when necessary. The frequent letters the pair sent to each other survive, revealing their affair to be one of "laughter, sex, mutually admired intelligence, and power". Many of their trysts seem to have centered around the
banya sauna in the basement of the Winter Palace; Potemkin soon grew so jealous that Catherine had to detail her prior love-life for him. Potemkin also rose in political stature, particularly on the strength of his military advice. In quick succession he won appointment as Governor-General of
Novorossiya, as a member of the
State Council, as
General-in-Chief, as vice-president of the
College of War That Catherine and Potemkin married is "almost certain", according to Simon Sebag Montefiore, although biographer Virginia Rounding has expressed some doubts. By late 1775, their relationship was changing, though it is uncertain exactly when Catherine took a secretary,
Pyotr Zavadovsky, as a lover. On 2 January 1776, Zavadovsky became Adjutant-General to the Empress (he became her official favorite in May) and Potemkin moved to command the St. Petersburg troop division. Signs of a potential "golden adieu" for Potemkin include his 1776 appointment, at Catherine's request, to the title of
Prince of the Holy Roman Empire. Though he was "bored" with Catherine, the separation was relatively peaceful. The Prince was sent on a tour to
Novgorod, but, contrary to the expectations of some onlookers (though not Catherine's), he returned a few weeks later. He then snubbed her gift of the
Anichkov Palace, and took new apartments in the
Winter Palace, retaining his posts. Though no longer Catherine's favorite, he remained her favored minister. Though the love affair appeared to end, Catherine and Potemkin maintained a particularly close friendship, which continued to dominate their lives. Most of the time this meant a love triangle in the court between the pair and Catherine's latest swain. The favorite had a high-pressure position: after Zavadovsky came
Semyon Zorich (May 1777 to May 1778),
Ivan Rimsky-Korsakov (May 1778 to late 1778),
Alexander Lanskoy (1780–1784),
Alexander Yermolov (1785–1786),
Alexander Dmitriev-Mamonov (1786–1789) and
Platon Zubov (1789–1796). Potemkin checked candidates for their suitability; it also appears that he tended to the relationships and "filled in" between favorites. Potemkin also arranged for Catherine to walk in on Rimsky-Korsakov in a compromising position with another woman. During Catherine's (comparatively) long relationship with Lanskoy, Potemkin was particularly able to turn his attentions to other matters. He embarked upon a long series of other romances, including with his own nieces, one of whom may have borne him a child.
Diplomat Potemkin's first task during this period was foreign policy. An
Anglophile, he helped negotiate with the English ambassador,
Sir James Harris, during Catherine's initiative of
Armed Neutrality, though the south remained his passion. His plan, known as the
Greek Project, aspired to build a new
Byzantine Empire around the Turkish capital in
Constantinople. Dismembering the Ottoman Empire would require
détente with Austria (technically still the
Habsburg monarchy), and its ruler
Joseph II. They met in May 1780 in the Russian town of
Mogilev. The ensuing alliance represented the triumph of Potemkin's approach over courtiers such as Catherine's son Paul, who favored alliance with
Prussia. The May 1781 defensive treaty remained secret for almost two years; the Ottomans were said to still have been unaware of it even when they declared war on Russia in 1787. in St. Petersburg Elsewhere, Potemkin's scheme to develop a Russian presence in the rapidly disintegrating state of
Persia failed. Plans for a full-scale invasion had previously been cut back and a small unit sent to establish a trading post there was quickly turned away. Potemkin focused instead on Russia's southern provinces, where he was busy founding cities (including Sevastopol) and creating his own personal kingdom, including his brand new
Black Sea Fleet. That kingdom was about to expand: under the
Treaty of Kuçuk Kainarji, which had ended the previous Russo-Turkish war, the
Crimean Khanate had become independent, though effectively under Russian control. In June 1782 it was descending again into
anarchy. The
Kingdom of Kartli-Kakheti accepted Russian protection a few days later with the
Treaty of Georgievsk searching for protection against Persia's aim to reestablish its suzerainty over Georgia; the
Karabakh Khanate of Persia initially looked as though it might also, but eventually declined Russian help. Exhausted, Potemkin collapsed into a fever he barely survived. Catherine rewarded him with one hundred thousand roubles, which he used to construct the
Tauride Palace in St. Petersburg.
Governor-General and city builder by Potemkin's death in 1791 Potemkin returned to St. Petersburg in November 1783 and was promoted to Field Marshal when Crimea was formally annexed the following February. He also became President of the College of War. The province of
Taurida (Crimea) was added to the state of
Novorossiya (lit.
New Russia). Potemkin moved south in mid-March, as the "Prince of Taurida" or "Potemkin-Tauricheski". He had been the
namestnik of Russia's southern provinces (including Novorossiya,
Azov,
Saratov,
Astrakhan and the Caucasus) since 1774, repeatedly expanding the domain via military action. He kept his own court, which rivalled Catherine's: by the 1780s he operated a chancellery with fifty or more clerks and had his own minister,
Vasili Popov, to oversee day-to-day affairs. Another favored associate was Mikhail Faleev. The "criminal" breaking of the
Cossack hosts, particularly the
Zaporozhian Cossacks in 1775, helped define his rule. However, Montefiore argues that given their location, and in the wake of the
Pugachev rebellion, the Cossacks were likely doomed in any case. Among the
Zaporizhian Cossacks he was known as
Hrytsko Nechesa.
Builder Potemkin then embarked on a period of city-founding. Construction started at his first effort,
Kherson, in 1778, as a base for a new
Black Sea Fleet he intended to build. Potemkin approved every plan himself, but construction was slow, and the city proved costly and vulnerable to
plague. Next was the port of Akhtiar, annexed with Crimea, which became
Sevastopol. Then he built
Simferopol as the Crimean capital. His biggest failure, however, was his effort to build the city of Yekaterinoslav (), now the city of
Dnipro. The second most successful city of Potemkin's rule was Nikolayev (now
Mykolaiv), which he founded in 1789. Potemkin's Black Sea Fleet was a massive undertaking for its time. By 1787, the British ambassador reported twenty-seven
ships of the line. It put Russia on a naval footing with Spain, though far behind the
Royal Navy. Potemkin also rewarded hundreds of thousands of settlers who moved into his territories. It is estimated that by 1782 the populations of Novorossiya and Azov had doubled during a period of "exceptionally rapid" development. Immigrants included Russians, foreigners, British convicts
diverted from Australia, Cossacks and controversially
Jews. Though the immigrants were not always happy in their new surroundings, on at least one occasion Potemkin intervened directly to ensure families received the cattle to which they were entitled. Outside of Novorossiya he drew up the Azov-Mozdok defense line, constructing forts at
Georgievsk,
Stavropol and elsewhere and ensured that the whole of the line was settled. In 1784 Alexander Lanskoy died and Potemkin was needed at court to console the grieving Catherine. After
Alexander Yermolov was installed as the new favorite in 1785, Catherine, Yermolov and Potemkin cruised the upper
Volga. When Yermolov attempted to unseat Potemkin (and attracted support from Potemkin's critics), he found himself replaced by Count
Alexander Dmitriev-Mamonov in the summer of 1786. Potemkin returned to the south, having arranged that Catherine would visit in the summer of 1787. She reached
Kiev in late January, to travel down the
Dnieper after the ice had melted (see
Crimean journey of Catherine the Great). Potemkin had other lovers at this time, including a 'Countess' and a Naryshkina. Leaving in April, the royal party arrived in Kherson a month later. On visiting Sevastopol, Austria's Joseph II, who was traveling with them, was moved to note that "The Empress is totally ecstatic... Prince Potemkin is at the moment all-powerful".
"Potemkin village" The notion of the
Potemkin village, coined in German by critical biographer Georg von Helbig as '''', arose from
Catherine's visit to the south. Critics accused Potemkin of using painted
façades to fool Catherine into thinking that the area was far richer than it was. Thousands of peasants were alleged to have been stage-managed for this purpose. Certainly, Potemkin had arranged for Catherine to see the best he had to offer, organizing numerous exotic excursions, and at least two cities' officials concealed poverty by building false houses. It seems unlikely that the fraud approached the scale alleged. The
Prince of Ligne, a member of the Austrian delegation, who had explored on his own during the trip, later proclaimed the allegations to be false.
Commander-in-Chief Potemkin remained in the south, gradually sinking into depression. His inactivity was problematic, given that he was now Russia's commander-in-chief and, in August 1787, another
Russo-Turkish war broke out, the second of Potemkin's lifetime. His opponents were anxious to reclaim the lands they had lost in the last war, and they were under pressure from Prussia, Britain and Sweden to take a hostile attitude towards Russia. Potemkin's bluster had probably contributed to the hostility, either deliberately or accidentally. Either way, his creation of the new fleet and Catherine's trip to the south had certainly not helped matters. In the center, Potemkin had his own Yekaterinoslav Army, while to the west lay the smaller Ukraine Army under the command of Field-Marshal
Rumyantsev-Zadunaisky. On water he had the Black Sea Fleet, and Potemkin was also responsible for coordinating military actions with Russia's Austrian allies. Potemkin and Catherine agreed on a primarily defensive strategy until the spring. Though the Turks were repelled in early skirmishes against the Russian fortress at
Kinburn, news of the loss of Potemkin's beloved fleet during a storm sent him into a deep depression. A week later, and after kind words from Catherine, he was rallied by the news that the fleet was not destroyed, but only damaged. General
Alexander Suvorov won an important
victory at Kinburn in early October. With winter now approaching, Potemkin was confident the port would be safe until the spring. Turning his attention elsewhere, Potemkin established his headquarters in
Elisabethgrad and planned future operations. He assembled an army of forty or fifty thousand, including the newly formed
Kuban Cossacks. He divided his time between military preparation (creating a fleet of a hundred gunboats to fight within the shallow
liman) and chasing the wives of soldiers under his command. Meanwhile, the Austrians remained on the defensive across central Europe, though they did manage to hold their lines. Despite advice to the contrary, Potemkin pursued an equally defensive strategy, though in the
Caucasus Generals Tekeeli and Pavel Potemkin were making some inroads. In early summer 1788, fighting intensified as Potemkin's forces won their naval confrontation with the Turks with few losses, and began the
siege of Ochakov, a Turkish stronghold and the main Russian war aim. Less promising was that St. Petersburg, exposed after Russia's best forces departed for Crimea, was now under threat from Sweden in the
Russo-Swedish War of 1788–90. Potemkin refused to write regularly with news of the war in the south, compounding Catherine's anxiety. '' in Odesa, Ukraine Potemkin argued with Suvorov and Catherine herself, who were both anxious to assault Ochakov, which the Turks twice managed to supply by sea. Finally, on 6 December, the assault began and four hours later the city was taken, a coup for Potemkin. Nearly ten thousand Turks had been killed at a cost of (only) two-and-a-half thousand Russians. Potemkin then visited the naval yard at Vitovka, founded Nikolayev, and traveled on to St. Petersburg, arriving in February 1789. In May he left once more for the front, having agreed on contingency plans with Catherine should Russia be forced into war with either Prussia or the upstart Poland, which had recently successfully demanded the withdrawal of Russian troops from its territory. (Catherine herself was just about to change favorites for the final time, replacing Dmitriev-Mamonov with
Platon Zubov.) Back on the Turkish front, Potemkin advanced towards the fortress of
Bender on the
Dniester river. The summer and autumn of 1789 saw numerous victories against the Turks, including the
Battle of Focşani in July; in early September, the
Battle of Rymnik and the capture of both
Kaushany and
Hadjibey (modern-day Odesa); and finally the surrender of the Turkish fortress at
Akkerman in late September. The massive fortress at Bender surrendered in November without a fight. Potemkin opened up a lavish court at
Iași, the capital of
Moldavia, to "winter like a sultan, revel in his mistresses, build his towns, create his regiments—and negotiate peace with [the Turks]... he was emperor of all he surveyed". Potemkin even established a newspaper,
Le Courrier de Moldavie. His preferred lover at the time—though he had others—was Praskovia Potemkina, an affair which continued into 1790. Potemkin renamed two ships in her honor. As part of the diplomatic machinations, Potemkin was given the new title of "Grand
Hetman of the Black Sea and Yekaterinoslav Cossack Hosts" and in March he assumed personal control of the Black Sea fleet as Grand Admiral. The peace also freed up military resources for the war against the Turks. Potemkin had moved his ever more lavish court to Bender and there were soon more successes against Turkey, including the capture of
Batal-Pasha and, on the second attempt, of
Kiliya on the
Danube. By the end of November, only one major target remained: the Turkish fortress of
Izmail. At Potemkin's request, General Suvorov commanded the assault, which proved to be costly but effective. The victory was commemorated by Russia's first, albeit unofficial, national anthem, "
Let the thunder of victory sound!", written by
Gavrila Derzhavin and
Osip Kozlovsky. After two years, he returned to St. Petersburg to face the threat of war against an Anglo-Prussian coalition in addition to the war with Turkey. His return was widely celebrated with the "Carnival of Prince Potemkin". The Prince came across as polite and charming though his latest mistress, Princess Ekaterina Dolgorukaya, appeared sidelined, and Potemkin found himself embroiled in court intrigue whilst trying to force Zubov out. Catherine and Potemkin fought over military strategy; the Empress wanted no compromise, while Potemkin wanted to buy time by appeasing the Prussians. Though Russia was still at war with the Ottomans, Potemkin's focus was now Poland. Potemkin had conservative allies including
Felix Potocki, whose schemes were so diverse that they have yet to be fully untangled. For example, one idea was for Potemkin to declare himself king. Success on the Turkish front continued, mostly attributable to Potemkin. He now had the opportunity to confront the Turks and dictate a peace, but that would mean leaving Catherine. His procrastination soured Catherine's attitude towards him, a situation compounded by Potemkin's choice of the married Princess Paskovia Adreevna Golitsyna (née Shuvalova) as his latest mistress. In the end, Potemkin was given the requisite authority to negotiate with the Turks (and, afterwards, to pursue his Polish ambitions), and dispatched by Catherine back to the south. She sent a note after him, reading "Goodbye my friend, I kiss you".
Death n Steppe'' by
Mikhail Matveevich Ivanov (1791) Potemkin fell ill in the fever-ridden city of
Iași, then often known as Jassy in English, although he kept busy, overseeing peace talks, planning his assault on Poland, and preparing the army for renewed war in the south. He fasted briefly and recovered some strength, but refused medicine and began to feast once again, consuming a "ham, a salted goose and three or four chickens". On , he felt better and dictated a letter to Catherine before collapsing once more. Later, he awoke and dispatched his entourage to Nikolayev. On Potemkin died in the open
steppe, 60 km from Iași. Picking up on contemporary rumor, historians such as the Polish
Jerzy Łojek have suggested that he was
poisoned because his madness made him a liability, but this is rejected by Montefiore, who suggests he succumbed to
bronchial pneumonia instead. Potemkin was embalmed, and a funeral was held for him in Iași. Eight days after his death, he was buried. Catherine was distraught and ordered social life in St. Petersburg be put on hold.
Derzhavin's ode
Waterfall lamented Potemkin's death. Likewise many in the military establishment had looked upon Potemkin as a father figure and were especially saddened by his demise. Potemkin had used the state treasury as a personal bank, preventing the resolution of his financial affairs to this day. Catherine purchased the
Tauride Palace and his art collection from his estate, and paid off his debts. Consequently, he left a relative fortune. Catherine's son Paul, who succeeded to the throne in 1796, attempted to undo as many of Potemkin's reforms as possible. The Tauride Palace was turned into a barracks, and the city of
Gregoripol, which had been named in Potemkin's honor, was renamed. Potemkin's grave survived a destruction order issued by Paul and was eventually displayed by the
Bolsheviks. His remains appeared to lie in his tomb at
St. Catherine's Cathedral in
Kherson. The exact whereabouts of some of his internal organs, including his heart and brain first kept at
Golia Monastery in Iași, remain unknown. Pro-Russian officials during the
Russian invasion of Ukraine said that his remains were taken from his tomb and transported to Russia. This was the ninth time that Potemkin's remains were moved. ==Personality and reputation==