Early reign Prithviraj moved from Gujarat to Ajmer, when his father Someshvara was crowned the Chahamana king after the death of
Prithviraja II. Someshvara died in 1177 CE (1234
VS), when Prithviraj was around 11 years old. The last inscription from Someshvara's reign and the first inscription from Prithviraj's reign are both dated to this year. Prithviraj, who was a minor at the time, ascended the throne with his mother as the
regent. The
Hammira Mahakavya claims that Someshvara himself installed Prithviraj on the throne, and then
retired to the forest. However, this is doubtful. During his early years as the king, Prithviraj's mother managed the administration, assisted by a regency council. Kadambavasa served as the chief minister of the kingdom during this period. He is also known as Kaimasa, Kaimash or Kaimbasa in the folk legends, which describe him as an able administrator and soldier devoted to the young king.
Prithviraja Vijaya states that he was responsible for all the military victories during the early years of Prithviraj's reign. According to two different legends, Kadambavasa was later killed by Prithviraj. The
Prithviraja-Raso claims that Prithviraj killed the minister after finding him in the apartment of the king's favourite concubine Karnati.
Prithviraja-Prabandha claims that a man named Pratapa-Simha conspired against the minister, and convinced Prithviraj that the minister was responsible for the repeated Muslim invasions. Both these claims appear to be historically inaccurate, as the much more historically reliable
Prithviraja Vijaya does not mention any such incident. Bhuvanaikamalla, the paternal uncle of Prithviraj's mother, was another important minister during this time. According to
Prithviraja Vijaya, he was a valiant general who served Prithviraj as
Garuda serves
Vishnu. The text also states that he was "proficient in the art of subduing
nāgas". According to the 15th-century historian
Jonaraja, "naga" here refers to elephants. However,
Har Bilas Sarda interpreted Naga as the name of a tribe, and theorized that Bhuvanaikamalla defeated this tribe. According to historian
Dasharatha Sharma, Prithviraj assumed actual control of the administration in 1180 CE (1237
VS).
Conflict with Nagarjuna and Bhadanakas The first military achievement of Prithviraj was his suppression of a revolt by his cousin Nagarjuna, and recapture of Gudapura (IAST: Guḍapura; possibly modern
Gurgaon). Nagarjuna was a son of Prithviraj's uncle
Vigraharaja IV, and the struggle for the Chahamana throne had led to a rivalry between the two branches of the family. According to
Prithviraja Vijaya, Nagarjuna rebelled against Prithviraj's authority and occupied the fort of Gudapura. Prithviraj besieged Gudapura with a large army comprising
infantry,
camels,
elephants and
horses. Nagarjuna fled the fort, but Devabhata (possibly his general) continued to offer resistance. Ultimately, Prithviraj's army emerged victorious, and captured the wife, mother, and followers of Nagarjuna. According to
Prithviraja Vijaya, a garland made of the defeated soldiers' heads was hung across the Ajmer fort gate. Two verses of
Kharatara-Gachchha-Pattavali mention the victory of Prithviraj over the
Bhadanakas, while describing a debate between two
Jain monks. This victory can be dated to sometime before 1182 CE, when the said debate took place. According to Cynthia Talbot, the Bhadanakas were an obscure dynasty who controlled the area around
Bayana. According to Dasharatha Sharma, the Bhadanaka territory comprised the area around present-day
Bhiwani,
Rewari and
Alwar.
War against Chandelas The 1182–83 CE (1239
VS)
Madanpur inscriptions from Prithviraj's reign claim that he "laid to waste" Jejakabhukti (present-day
Bundelkhand), which was ruled by the
Chandela king
Paramardi. Prithviraj's invasion of the Chandela territory is also described in the later folk legends, such as
Prithviraj Raso,
Paramal Raso, and
Alha-Raso. Other texts such as
Sarangadhara Paddhati and
Prabandha Chintamani also mention Prithviraj's attack on Paramardi. The
Kharatara-Gachchha-Pattavali mentions that Prithviraj had embarked upon a
digvijaya (conquest of all the regions). This appears to be a reference to the start of Prithviraj's march to Jejakabhukti. The legendary account of Prithviraj's campaign against the Chandelas goes like this: Prithviraj was returning to
Delhi after marrying the daughter of Padamsen, when his contingent was attacked by the "Turkic" forces (
Ghurids). His army repulsed the attacks but suffered serious casualties in the process. Amid this chaos, the Chahamana soldiers lost their way and unknowingly encamped in the Chandela capital
Mahoba. They killed the Chandela royal gardener for objecting to their presence, which led to a skirmish between the two sides. The Chandela king Paramardi asked his general
Udal to attack Prithviraj's camp, but Udal advised against this move. Paramardi's brother-in-law Mahil Parihar ruled modern-day
Orai; he harboured ill-will against Paramardi and instigated the king to go ahead with the attack. Prithviraj defeated Udal's contingent and then left for Delhi. Subsequently, unhappy with Mahil's scheming, Udal and his brother
Alha left the Chandela court. They started serving
Jaichand, the
Gahadavala ruler of
Kannauj. Mahil then secretly informed Prithviraj that Chandela kingdom had become weak in absence of its strongest generals. Prithviraj invaded the Chandela kingdom and besieged Sirsagarh, which was held by Udal's cousin Malkhan. After failing to win over Malkhan through peaceful methods and losing eight generals, Prithviraj captured the fort. The Chandelas then appealed for a truce, and used this time to recall Alha and Udal from Kannauj. In support of the Chandelas, Jaichand dispatched an army led by his best generals, including two of his own sons. The combined Chandela-Gahadavala army attacked Prithviraj's camp, but was defeated. After his victory, Prithviraj sacked Mahoba. He then dispatched his general Chavand Rai to
Kalinjar Fort to capture Paramardi. According to the various legends, Paramardi either died or retired shortly after the attack. Prithviraj returned to Delhi after appointing Pajjun Rai as the governor of Mahoba. Later, Paramardi's son recaptured Mahoba. The exact historicity of this legendary narrative is debatable. The Madanpur inscriptions establish that Prithviraj sacked Mahoba, but historical evidence suggests that his occupation of Chandela territory is either a fabrication by the bards, or did not last long. It is known that Paramardi did not die or retire immediately after the Chauhan victory; in fact, he continued ruling as a sovereign nearly a decade after Prithviraj's death. Cynthia Talbot asserts that Prithviraj only raided Jejakabhukti, and Paramardi regained control of his kingdom soon after his departure from Mahoba. Talbot continues that Prithviraj was not able to annex the Chandela territory to his kingdom. Conversely, according to R.B. Singh, it is probable that some part of Chandela territory was annexed by Chahmanas albeit for a short time.
Wars in Gujarat The
Kharatara-Gachchha-Pattavali mentions a peace treaty between Prithviraj, and
Bhima II, the
Chaulukya (Solanki) king of
Gujarat. This implies that the two kings were previously at war. This war can be dated to sometime before 1187 CE (1244
VS). The
Veraval inscription states that Bhima's prime minister Jagaddeva Pratihara was "the moon to the lotus-like queens of Prithviraja" (a reference to the belief that the moon-rise causes a day-blooming lotus to close its petals). Since Bhima was a minor at the time, it appears that Jagaddeva led the campaign on the Chaulukya side. The historically unreliable
Prithviraj Raso provides some details about the Chahamana-Chaulukya struggle. According to it, both Prithviraj and Bhima wanted to marry Ichchhini, the Paramara princess of Abu. Prithviraj's marriage to her led to a rivalry between the two kings. Historian
G. H. Ojha dismisses this legend as fiction, because it states that Ichchhini was a daughter of Salakha, while Dharavarsha was the Paramara ruler of Abu at the time. Historian R. B. Singh, on the other hand, believes that Salakha was the head of another Paramara branch at Abu. The
Raso also mentions that Prithviraj's uncle Kanhadeva had killed seven sons of Bhima's uncle Sarangadeva. To avenge these murders, Bhima invaded the Chahamana kingdom and killed Prithviraj's father Someshvara, capturing
Nagor in the process. Prithviraj re-captured Nagor, and defeated and killed Bhima. This is known to be historically false, as the reign of Bhima II lasted nearly half a century after Prithviraj's death. Similarly, historical evidence suggests Bhima II was a child at the time of Someshvara's death, and therefore, could not have killed him. Despite these discrepancies, there is some evidence of a battle between the Chahamanas and the Chaulukyas at Nagor. Two inscriptions found at Charlu village near
Bikaner commemorate the death of
Mohil soldiers at the battle of Nagor in 1184 CE (1241
VS). The Mohils are a branch of the Chauhans (the Chahamanas), and it is possible the inscriptions refer to the battle described in
Prithviraj Raso. Sometime before 1187 CE, Jagaddeva Pratihara signed a peace treaty with Prithviraj. According to
Kharatara-Gachchha-Pattavali, a chief named Abhayada once sought Jagaddeva's permission to attack and rob the wealthy visitors from Sapadalaksha country (the Chahamana territory). In response, Jagaddeva told Abhayada that he had concluded a treaty with Prithviraj with much difficulty. Jaggadeva then threatened to have Abhayada sewn in a donkey's belly if he harassed the people of Sapadalaksha. Historian
Dasharatha Sharma theorizes that the Chahamana-Chaulukya conflict ended with some advantage for Prithviraj, as Jagaddeva appears to have been very anxious to preserve the treaty. According to historian
R.C. Majumdar and
Satish Chandra his long drawn out struggle against Gujarat was unsuccessful and he suffered a reverse against Bhima. Thus, Prithviraj concluded a treaty by 1187 CE.
Paramaras The area around
Mount Abu was ruled by the
Chandravati Paramara ruler Dharavarsha, who was a Chaulukya feudatory.
Partha-Parakrama-Vyayoga, a text written by his younger brother Prahaladana, describes Prithviraj's night attack on Abu. This attack, according to the text, was a failure for the Chahamanas. It probably happened during the Gujarat campaign of Prithviraj.
Gahadavala conflict The
Gahadavala kingdom, centered around
Kannauj and headed by another powerful king
Jayachandra, was located to the east of the Chahamana kingdom. According to a legend mentioned in
Prithviraj Raso, Prithviraj eloped with Jayachandra's daughter
Samyogita, leading to a rivalry between the two kings. The legend goes like this: King Jaichand (Jayachandra) of Kannauj decided to conduct a
Rajasuya ceremony to proclaim his supremacy. Prithviraj refused to participate in this ceremony, and thus, refused to acknowledge Jaichand as the supreme king. Jaichand's daughter Samyogita fell in love with Prithviraj after hearing about his heroic exploits, and declared that she would marry only him. Jaichand arranged a
swayamvara (husband-selection) ceremony for his daughter, but did not invite Prithviraj. Nevertheless, Prithviraj marched to Kannauj with a hundred warriors and eloped with Samyogita. Two-thirds of his warriors sacrificed their life in fight against the Gahadavala army, allowing him to escape to Delhi with Samyogita. In
Delhi, Prithviraj became infatuated with his new wife, and started spending most of his time with her. He started ignoring the state affairs, which ultimately led to his defeat against
Muhammad of Ghor. This legend is also mentioned in
Abu'l-Fazl's
Ain-i-Akbari and Chandrashekhara's
Surjana-Charita (which names the Gahadavala princess as "Kantimati").
Prithviraja Vijaya mentions that Prithviraj fell in love with the incarnation of an
apsara Tilottama, although he had never seen this woman and was already married to other women. According to historian
Dasharatha Sharma, this is probably a reference to Samyogita. However, this legend is not mentioned in other historical sources such as
Prithviraja-Prabandha,
Prabandha-Chintamani,
Prabandha-Kosha and
Hammira-Mahakavya. The Gahadavala records are also silent about this event, including the supposed Rajasuya performance by Jayachandra. According to Dasharatha Sharma and R. B. Singh, there might be some historical truth in this legend, as it is mentioned in three different sources. All three sources place the event sometime before Prithviraj's final confrontation with
Muhammad of Ghor in 1192 CE.
Other rulers in Delhi The
Prithviraj Raso mentions that Prithviraj defeated Nahar Rai of Mandovara and the Mughal chief Mudgala Rai, but these stories appear to be pure fiction. No historical records suggest existence of these persons. The construction of the now-ruined
Qila Rai Pithora fort in
Delhi is attributed to Prithviraj. According to
Prithviraj Raso, Delhi's ruler
Anangpal Tomar gave the city to his son-in-law Prithviraj, and was defeated when he wanted it back. This is historically inaccurate, as Delhi was annexed to the Chahamana territory by Prithviraj's uncle
Vigraharaja IV. In addition, historical evidence suggests that Anangpal Tomar died before the birth of Prithviraj. The claim about his daughter's marriage to Prithviraj appears to have been concocted at a later date.
War with the Ghurids Prithviraj's predecessors had faced multiple raids from the
Muslim dynasties that had captured the north-western areas of the
Indian subcontinent by the 12th century. By the late 12th century, the
Ghazna-based
Ghurid dynasty controlled the territory to the west of the Chahamana kingdom. While Prithviraj was still a child, in 1175 CE, the Ghurid ruler
Muhammad of Ghor crossed the
Indus River and captured
Multan. In 1178 CE, he invaded
Gujarat, which was ruled by the
Chaulukyas (Solankis). During its march to Gujarat, the Ghurid army appears to have passed through the western frontier of the Chahamana kingdom, as evident by the destruction of several temples and sacking of the
Bhati-ruled
Lodhruva. The
Prithviraja Vijaya mentions that the activities of the Ghurid army were like
Rahu to the Chahamana kingdom (in Hindu mythology, Rahu swallows the Sun, causing a
solar eclipse). However, it does not mention any military engagement between the two kingdoms. On its way to Gujarat, the Ghurid army besieged the
Naddula (Nadol) fort, which was controlled by the
Chahamanas of Naddula. Prithviraj's chief minister Kadambavasa advised him not to offer any assistance to the rivals of the Ghurids, and to stay away from this conflict. The Chahamanas did not immediately face a Ghurid invasion, because the Chaulukyas of Gujarat defeated Muhammad at the
Battle of Kasahrada in 1178 CE, forcing the Ghurids to retreat. Over the next few years, Muhammad of Ghor consolidated his power in the territory to the west of the Chahamanas, conquering
Peshawar,
Sindh, and
Punjab. He shifted his base from Ghazna to Punjab, and made attempts to expand his empire eastwards, which brought him into conflict with Prithviraj.
Prithviraja Vijaya mentions that Muhammad of Ghor sent an ambassador to Prithviraj, but does not provide any details.
Hasan Nizami's
Taj-ul-Maasir (13th century CE) states that Muhammad sent his chief judge
Qiwam-ul Mulk Ruknud Din Hamza to Prithviraj's court. The envoy tried to convince Prithviraj to "abandon belligerence and pursue the path of rectitude", but was unsuccessful. As a result, Muhammad decided to wage a war against Prithviraj. The medieval Muslim writers mention only one or two battles between the two rulers. The
Tabaqat-i Nasiri and
Tarikh-i-Firishta mention the two Battles of Tarain.
Jami-ul-Hikaya and
Taj-ul-Maasir mention only the second battle of Tarain, in which Prithviraj was defeated. However, the Hindu and Jain writers state that Prithviraj defeated Muhammad multiple times before being killed: • The
Hammira Mahakavya claims that after defeating Muhammad for the first time, Prithviraj forced him to apologize to the princes whose territories he had ransacked, before letting him go. Muhammad invaded the Chahamana kingdom seven more times, but was defeated each time. However, his ninth invasion succeeded. • The
Prithviraja Prabandha states that the two kings fought 8 battles; Prithviraj defeated and captured the Ghurid king in the first seven of these, but released him unharmed each time. • The
Prabandha Kosha claims that Prithviraj captured Muhammad 20 times, but was himself imprisoned during the 21st battle. The
Surjana Charita and
Prithviraj Raso also enumerate 21 battles. • The
Prabandha Chintamani gives the number of battles between Muhammad and Prithviraj as 22. It also states that Prithviraj's army defeated the preceding enemy king in a previous battle, in which a subordinate of Prithviraj heroically sacrificed himself. While these accounts seem to exaggerate the number, it is possible that more than two engagements took place between the Ghurids and the Chahamanas during Prithviraj's reign. The early victories mentioned by the Hindu and Jain writers probably refer to Prithviraj's successful repulsion of raids by Ghurid generals.
First battle of Tarain During 1190–1191 CE, Muhammad of Ghor invaded the Chahamana territory, and captured Tabarhindah or Tabar-e-Hind (identified with
Bathinda). He placed it under the charge of Zia-ud-din, the
Qazi of
Tulak, supported by 1200 horsemen. When Prithviraj learned about this, marched towards Tabarhindah with his feudatories, including Govindaraja of
Delhi. According to the 16th-century Muslim historian
Firishta, his force comprised 200,000 horses and 3,000 elephants. Muhammad's original plan was to return to his base after conquering Tabarhindah, but when he heard about Prithviraj's march, he decided to put up a fight. He set out with an army, and encountered Prithviraj's forces at
Tarain. In the ensuing battle, Prithviraj's army decisively defeated the Ghurids. Muhammad of Ghor was injured and forced to retreat. Prithviraj did not pursue the retreating Ghurid army, not wanting to invade hostile territory or misjudge Ghori's ambition. He only besieged the Ghurid garrison at Tabarhindah, which surrendered after 13 months of siege.
Second battle of Tarain by Hutchinson & co Prithviraj seems to have treated the first battle of Tarain as merely a frontier fight. This view is strengthened by the fact that he made little preparations for any future clash with Muhammad of Ghor. According to
Prithviraj Raso, during the period preceding his final confrontation with the Ghurids, he neglected the affairs of the state and spent time in merry-making. Meanwhile, Muhammad of Ghor returned to
Ghazna, and made preparations to avenge his defeat. According to
Tabaqat-i Nasiri, he gathered a well-equipped army of 120,000 select
Afghan,
Tajik and
Turkic horsemen over the next few months. He then marched towards the Chahamana kingdom via
Multan and
Lahore, aided by Vijayaraja of
Jammu. Prithviraj had been left without any allies as a result of his wars against the neighbouring
Hindu kings. Nevertheless, he managed to gather a large army to counter the Ghurids. Prithviraj successfully marshaled a sizeable army composed of over 100 Rajput rulers, mainly War elephants, cavalrymen and foot soldiers. The 16th century Muslim historian
Firishta estimated the strength of Prithviraj's army as 300,000 horses and 3,000 elephants, in addition to a large infantry. This is most likely a gross exaggeration, aimed at emphasizing the scale of the Ghurid victory. Prithviraj wrote a letter to Muhammad of Ghor, promising him no harm if he decided to return to his own country. Muhammad insisted that he needed time to confer his brother
Ghiyath al-Din who was ruling from his capital at
Firozkoh. According to Firishta, he agreed to a truce until he received an answer from his brother. However, he planned an attack against the Chahamanas. According to
Jawami ul-Hikayat, Muhammad assigned a few men to keep the fires in his camp burning at night, while he marched off in another direction with the rest of his army. This gave the Chahamanas an impression that the Ghurid army was still encamped, observing the truce. After reaching several miles away, Muhammad formed four divisions, with 10,000 archers each. He kept the rest of his army in reserve. He ordered the four divisions to launch an attack on the Chahamana camp, and then pretend a retreat. At dawn, the four divisions of the Ghurid army attacked the Chahamana camp, while Prithviraj was still asleep. After a brief fight, the Ghurid divisions pretended to retreat in accordance with Muhammad's strategy. Prithviraj was thus lured into chasing them, and by the afternoon, the Chahamana army was exhausted as a result of this pursuit. At this point, Muhammad led his reserve force of 10,000 mounted archers and attacked the Chahamanas, decisively defeating them. Chronicler
Juzjani attributed the success of the Ghurid army to the 10,000 mounted archers which eventually overthrow the "infidel host". However, scholars like Dashratha Sharma and R.B. Singh argue that Ghoris' triumph was more a result of deceitful and treacherous strategies rather than the inherent strength of his forces. According to
Taj-ul-Maasir, Prithviraj's camp lost 100,000 men (including Govindaraja of Delhi) in this debacle. Prithviraj himself tried to escape on a horse, but was pursued and caught near the Sarasvati fort (possibly modern
Sirsa). Subsequently, Muhammad of Ghor captured Ajmer after killing several thousand defenders, enslaved many more, and destroyed the city's temples.
Jain accounts of Prithviraj's downfall Prabandha Chintamani by the 14th-century Jain scholar
Merutunga states that Prithviraj cut off the ears of one of his ministers, who guided the
Ghurid invaders to his camp as revenge. Prithviraj was in deep sleep after a day of religious fasting, and therefore, was easily captured.
Hammira Mahakavya by the 15th-century Jain scholar Nayachandra Suri states that after his initial defeat, the Ghurid king raised a fresh army with the support of a neighboring king, and marched to Delhi. Before the battle, he bribed Prithviraj's master of horses and musicians with gold coins. The master of horses had trained Prithviraj's horse to prance to drumbeats. The Ghurids attacked the Chahamana camp just before dawn, when Prithviraj was sleeping. Prithviraj tried to escape on his horse, but his musicians sounded the drums. The horse started prancing, and the invaders easily captured Prithviraj. According to another Jain text,
Prithviraja Prabandha, Prithviraj's minister Kaimbasa and his spear-bearer Pratapasimha were not on good terms. Kaimbasa once complained to king against Pratapasimha, who convinced the king that Kaimbasa was aiding the Ghurids. An angry Prithviraj attempted to kill Kaimbasa with an arrow one night, but ended up killing another man. When his bard Chand Baliddika admonished him, the king dismissed both the bard and the minister. At the time of Ghurid invasion of Delhi, Prithviraj had been sleeping for ten days. When the Ghurids came close, his sister woke him up: Prithviraj tried to flee on a horse, but Kaimbasa helped the Ghurids capture him by telling them about a certain sound that caused his horse to prance. == Death and succession ==