Refugee children

The Convention on the Rights of the Child, the most widely ratified human rights treaty in history, includes four articles that are particularly relevant to children involved in or affected by forced displacement: • the principle of non-discrimination (Article 2) • best interests of the child (Article 3) • right to life and survival and development (Article 6) • the right to child participation (Article 12) States Parties to the Convention are obliged to uphold the above articles, regardless of a child's migration status. Somalia and the United States are the only two countries that have not ratified it. The Convention provides protection to forcibly displaced persons who have experienced persecution or torture in their home countries. South Africa has granted refugee status to Mozambicans and Zimbabweans following the collapse of their home countries' economies. Other international legal tools for the protection refugee children include two of the Protocols supplementing the United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime which reference child migration: • the Protocol to Prevent, Suppress, and Punish Trafficking in Persons, especially Women and Children; • the Protocol against the Smuggling of Migrants by Land, Sea, and Air. Additionally the International Convention on the Protection of the Rights of All Migrant Workers and Members of Their Families covers the rights of the children of migrant workers in both regular and irregular situations during the entire migration process. == Stages of the refugee experience ==

Refugee experiences can be categorized into three stages of migration: home country experiences (pre-migration), transit experiences (transmigration), and host country experiences (post-migration). However, the large majority of refugees do not travel into new host countries, but remain in the transmigration stage, living in refugee camps or urban centres waiting to be able to return home. Home country experiences (pre-migration) The pre-migration stage refers to home country experiences leading up to and including the decision to flee. Pre-migration experiences include the challenges and threats children face that drive them to seek refuge in another country. Refugee children migrate, either with their families or unaccompanied, due to fear of persecution on the premise of membership of a particular social group, or due to the threat of forced marriage, forced labor, or conscription into armed forces. A 2016 report by UNICEF found that, by the end of 2015, five years of open conflict in the Syrian Arab Republic had forced 4.9 million Syrians out of the country, half of which were children. The same report found that, by the end of 2015, more than ten years of armed conflict in Afghanistan had forced 2.7 million Afghans beyond the country's borders; half of the refugees from Afghanistan were children. According to an estimate, 12,000 refugee children have been recruited into armed groups within South Sudan. War itself often becomes a part of the child's identity, making reintegration difficult once he or she is removed from the unstable environment. • Some Burmese refugee children in Australia were found to have undergone severe pre-migration traumas, including the lack of food, water, and shelter, forced separation from family members, murder of family or friends, kidnappings, sexual abuse, and torture. In fact, 58 percent of 404 unaccompanied and separated children interviewed by the UN Refugee Agency, UNHCR, about their journey to the United States indicated that they had been forcibly displaced from their homes because they had either been harmed or were under threat of harm. In general, children may also cross borders for economic reasons, such as to escape poverty and social deprivation, or some children may do so to join other family members already settled in another State. But it is the involuntary nature of refugees' departure that distinguishes them from other migrant groups who have not undergone forced displacement. Refugees, and even more so their children, are neither psychologically nor pragmatically prepared for the rapid movement and transition resulting from events outside their control. Transit experiences (transmigration) fleeing the Russian invasion of Ukraine, 5 March 2022 The transmigration period is characterized by the physical relocation of refugees. This process includes the journey between home countries and host countries and often involves time spent in a refugee camp. Children may experience arrest, detention, sexual assault, and torture during their translocation to the host country. Trafficking Smuggling, in which a smuggler illegally moves a migrant into another country, is a pervasive issue for children travelling both with and without their families. Including adults, sex trafficking is more prevalent in Europe and Central Asia, whereas in East Asia, South Asia, and the Pacific labour trafficking is more prevalent. Many unaccompanied children fleeing from conflict zones in Moldova, Romania, Ukraine, Nigeria, Sierra Leone, China, Afghanistan or Sri Lanka are forced into sexual exploitation. Especially vulnerable groups include girls belonging to single-parent households, unaccompanied children, children from child-headed households, orphans, girls who were street traders, and girls whose mothers were street traders. Detention Children may be detained in prisons, military facilities, immigration detention centers, welfare centers, or educational facilities. While detained, migrant children are deprived of a range of rights, such as the right to physical and mental health, privacy, education, and leisure. And many countries do not have a legal time limit for detention, leaving some children incarcerated for indeterminate time periods. Some children are even detained together with adults and subjected to a harsher, adult-based treatment and regimen. And Yemen has adopted a community-driven approach, using small-group alternative care homes for child refugees and asylum-seekers, as a more age-appropriate way of detention. Although there is commitment by the Council of Europe to work toward ending the detention of children for migration control purposes, asylum-seeking and migrant children and families often undergo detention experiences that conflict with international commitments. Hardships of a refugee camp may also contribute to symptoms following a refugee child's discharge from a camp. A small number of Cuban refugee children and adolescents, who were detained in a refugee camp, were assessed months after their release, and it was found that 57 percent of the youth exhibited moderate to severe posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms. Unaccompanied girls at refugee camps may also face harassment or assault from camp guards and fellow male refugees. In addition to having poor infrastructure and limited support services, there are a few refugee camps that can present danger to refugee children and families by housing members of armed forces. Also, at a few refugee camps, militia forces may try to recruit and abduct children. It is only a minority of refugees who travel into new host countries and who are allowed to start a new life there. Most refugees are living in refugee camps or urban centres waiting to be able to return home. For those who are starting a new life in a new country there are two options: Seeking asylum Asylum seekers are people who have formally applied for asylum in another country and who are still waiting for a decision on their status. Once they have received a positive response from the host government, they will legally be considered as refugees. Refugees, like citizens of the host country, have the rights to education, health, and social services, whereas asylum seekers do not. For instance, the majority of refugees and migrants who arrived in Europe in 2015 through mid-2016 were accommodated in overcrowded transit centers and informal settlements, where privacy and access to education and health services were often limited. More children are traveling alone, with nearly 100,000 unaccompanied children in 2015 filing claims for asylum in 78 countries. In Australia, for instance, unaccompanied children, who usually do not have any kind of legal assistance, must prove beyond any reasonable doubt that they are in need of the country's protection. Without documented status, unaccompanied children often face challenges in acquiring education and healthcare in many countries. These factors make them particularly vulnerable to hunger, homelessness, and sexual and labor exploitation. Unaccompanied children may also resort to dangerous jobs to meet their own survival needs. Some may also engage in criminal activity or drug and alcohol abuse. Girls, to a larger extent than boys, are vulnerable to sexual exploitation and abuse, both of which can have far-reaching effects on their physical and mental health. Refugee resettlement Third country resettlement refers to the transfer of refugees from the country they have fled to another country that is more suitable to their needs and that has agreed to grant them permanent settlement. Currently the number of places available for resettlement is less than the number needed for children for whom resettlement would be most appropriate. Some European nations have established programs to support the resettlement and integration of refugee children. The United Kingdom also established a new initiative in 2016 to support the resettlement of vulnerable refugee children from the Middle East and North Africa, regardless of family separation status. Refugee children without caretakers have a greater risk of exhibiting psychiatric symptoms of mental illnesses following traumatic stress. Unaccompanied refugee children display more behavioral problems and emotional distress than refugee children with caretakers. Parental well-being plays a crucial role in enabling resettled refugees to transition into a new society. If a child is separated from his/her caretakers during the process of resettlement, the likelihood that he/she will develop a mental illness increases. ==Health==

This section covers health throughout the different stages of the refugee experience. Health status Nutrition Refugee children arriving in the United States often come from countries with a high prevalence of undernutrition. Nearly half of a sample of refugee children who arrived to the American state of Washington, the majority of which were from Iraq, Somalia, and Burma, were found to have at least one form of malnutrition. In the under five age range refugee children had significantly higher rates of wasting syndrome and stunted growth, as well as a lower prevalence of obesity, in comparison to low-income non-refugee children. However, some time after they arrived in the United States and Australia, many refugee children demonstrated an increasing rate of overnutrition. An Australian study, assessing the nutritional status of 337 sub-Saharan African children aged between three and 12 years, found that the prevalence rate for overweight amongst refugee children was 18.4%. The prevalence rate of overweight and obesity among refugee children in Rhode Island, increased from 17.3% at initial measurement at first arrival to 35.4% at measurement three years after. But the nutritional profiles of refugee children also often vary by their country of origin. A study involving Syrian refugee children in Jordanian refugee camps found them to be on average more likely overweight than acutely malnourished. The low prevalence of acute malnutrition among them was attributed, at least partly, to UNICEF's infant and child feeding interventions, as well as to the distribution of food vouchers by the World Food Programme (WFP). Among newly arrived refugees in Washington state, significantly higher rates of obesity were observed among Iraqi children, whereas higher rates of stunting were found among Burmese and Somali children. The latter also had higher rates of wasting. Communicable diseases Communicable diseases are a pervasive issue faced by refugee children in camps and other temporary settlements. Governments and organizations are working to address a number of them, such as measles, rubella, diarrhea, and cholera. Scabies is one of the most frequently observed medical conditions affecting children in refugee camps, mainly due to over-crowding and medicine shortages. Refugee children often arrive in the United States from countries with a high prevalence of infectious disease. Some countries, such as Kenya, have developed preventive, detective, and curative programs to specifically target measles within the refugee children population. Kenya has reached over 20 million children with a measles and rubella immunization campaign carried out at the national level in May 2016. In 2017 the Kenya Ministry of Health even reported a routine vaccination coverage of 95 percent in the Dadaab refugee camp. As of April 2017, in response to the first confirmed cases of measles in the camp, UNICEF and UNHCR have collaborated with the Kenya Ministry of Health to swiftly implement an integrated measles vaccination program in Dadaab. The campaign, which has been targeting children aged six to 14 years, also includes screening, treatment referrals for cases of malnutrition, vitamin A supplementation, and deworming. Diarrhea, acute watery diarrhea, and cholera can also put children's lives at risk. Countries, such as Bangladesh, have identified the introduction and development of proper sanitation habits and facilities as potential solutions to these medical conditions. A 2008 study comparing refugee camps in Bangladesh reported that camps with sanitation facilities had cholera rates of 16%, whereas camps without such facilities had cholera rates that were almost three times higher. Noncommunicable diseases During all points of the refugee experience, refugee children are often at risk of developing several noncommunicable diseases and conditions, such as lead poisoning, obesity, type 2 diabetes, and pediatric cancer. Many refugee children come to their host countries with elevated blood lead levels; others encounter lead hazards once they have resettled. A study published in January 2013 found that the blood lead levels of refugee children who had just arrived to the state of New Hampshire were more than twice as likely to be above 10 μg/dL as the blood lead levels of children born in the United States. Evidence from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) in the United States also found that nearly 30% of 242 refugee children in New Hampshire developed elevated blood lead levels within three to six months of their arrival to the United States, even though their levels were not found to be elevated at initial screening. A more recent study reported that refugee children in Massachusetts were 12 times more likely to have blood lead levels over 20 μg/dL a year after an initial screening than non-refugee children of the same age and living in the same communities. A study analyzing the medical records of former refugees residing in Rochester, New York, between 1980 and 2012 demonstrated that former child refugees may be at increased risk of obesity, type 2 diabetes, and hypertension following resettlement. Many Afghan children lack access to urban diagnosis centers in Pakistan; those who do have access have been found to have various types of cancer. It is also estimated that, within Turkey's Syrian refugee population, 60 to 100 children are diagnosed with cancer each year. Overall, the incidence rate of pediatric cancers among Turkey's Syrian refugee population was similar to that of Turkish children. The study additionally noted, however, that most refugee children affected by cancer were diagnosed when the tumor was already at an advanced stage. This could indicate that refugee children and their families often face obstacles such as poor prognoses, language barriers, financial problems, and social problems in adapting to a new setting. Mental health and illness Traditionally, the mental health of children experiencing conflict is understood in terms of either post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) or toxic stress. Prolonged and constant exposure to stress and uncertainty, characteristic of a war environment may result in toxic stress that children express with a change in behavior that may include anxiety, self-harm, aggressiveness or suicide. A 2017 study conducted in Syria by Save the Children determined that 84% of all adults and most children considered ongoing bombing and shelling to be the main psychological stressor, while 89% said that children were more fearful as the war progressed, and 80% said that children had become more aggressive. These stressors are leading causes of the symptoms described above, which lead to diagnosis of PTSD and toxic stress, among other mental conditions. These issues may then be further exacerbated by a forced migration to a foreign country, and the beginning of the process of refugee status determination. Refugee children are extremely vulnerable during migration and resettlement, and may experience long-term pathological effects, due to "disrupted development time". Psychoanalysts of refugee health have proposed that refugee children experience mourning for their culture and countries, despite the fact that the war-torn state of their homes is unsafe. This sudden loss of familiarity places children at a greater risk for mental dysfunction. In addition, studies have shown that refugee children show a higher vulnerability to stress when separated from their families. Refugee children living in high-income countries have a prevalence of depression of 3–30%, with an average prevalence of 18%. Nonetheless, experiments have shown that these adverse outcomes can be prevented through adequate protective factors, such as social support and intimacy. Additionally, effective adaptation strategies, such as absorption in work and creation of pseudofamilies, have led to successful coping in refugees. Many refugee populations, particularly Southeast Asian, undergo a secondary migration to larger communities of kinfolk from their countries of origin, which serve as social support networks for refugees. Research has shown that family reunification, formation of new social groups, community groups, and social services and professional support have contributed to successful resettlement of refugees. Less exposure to stigmatization lowers the risk of refugee children developing PTSD. It is important for children to access healthcare for the following reasons: Early interventions and treatments, Prevention of Childhood illnesses, Health tracking. Cognitive and emotional barriers Many refugees develop a mistrust of authority figures due to repressive governments in their country of origin. Fear of authority and a lack of awareness regarding mental health issues prevent refugee children and their families from seeking medical help. Certain cultures use informal support systems and self-care strategies to cope with their mental illnesses, rather than rely upon biomedicine. Language and cultural differences also complicate a refugee's understanding of mental illness and available healthcare. Since children and adolescents have a greater capacity to adopt their host country's language and cultural practices, they are often used as linguistic intermediaries between service providers and their parents. A third party present also reduces the willingness of refugees to trust their healthcare practitioners and disclose information. Adolescent ethnic minorities are less likely to access mental healthcare services than youth in the dominant cultural group. Parents, caretakers and teachers are more likely to report an adolescent's need for help, and seek help resources, than the adolescent. • An unfamiliarity with the host country's healthcare system, amplified by a shortage of government or community intervention in settlement services Structural deterrents for healthcare professionals: • Heightened instances of mental health complications in refugee populations • A lack of documented medical history, which makes comprehensive care difficult • Complicated insurance plans, resulting in a delay in compensation for the healthcare provider Health education The World Association of Girl Guides and Girl Scouts (WAGGGS) and Family Health International (FHI) have designed and piloted a peer-centered education program for adolescent refugee girls in Uganda, Zambia, and Egypt. The goal of the program was to reach young women who were interested in being informed about reproductive health issues. The program was split into three age-specific groups: girls aged seven to 10 learned about bodily changes and anatomy; girls aged 11 to 14 learned about sexually transmitted diseases; girls aged 15 and older focused on tips to ensure a healthy pregnancy and to properly care for a baby. According to qualitative surveys, increased self-esteem and greater use of health services among the program's participants were the largest benefits of the program. ==Children’s mental health and well-being in refugee camps==

Children’s mental health and well-being in refugee camps refers to the emotional, psychological, and social conditions of children living in forced displacement. This happens because of conflict, disasters, or persecution. These children are one of the most vulnerable groups in humanitarian settings. Children are still developing. This includes emotional, social, and mental growth. Because of this, they are more affected by stress than adults. They also react more strongly to unstable environments. Displacement can affect both short-term feelings and long-term mental health (UNICEF, 2021). Many refugee children go through trauma. This can happen before they leave home, during travel, or after arrival in camps. Some children see violence. Some lose family members. Others are separated from their parents. During migration, children may face hunger and unsafe travel. They may also lack shelter and clean water. Even after reaching camps, life is often uncertain. Conditions change frequently, and safety is not always guaranteed (UNHCR, 2023). Mental Health Risks Refugee children face many mental health risks. These risks come from trauma, loss, and uncertainty (WHO, 2022). One common problem is post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). This can happen after extreme stress or violence. Children with PTSD may have nightmares. They may relive events in their mind. They may also feel fear or emotional numbness. Some children react strongly to loud sounds. Sudden movements may also cause fear. These reactions can last for a long time after the event. Anxiety is also very common. Many children do not know what will happen next. They may not know if they will return home. They may not know if they will go back to school. They may also not know where their family members are. This creates constant worry (UNHCR, 2023). Depression can also appear. Children may stop enjoying daily activities. They may stop playing with others. Some may stay quiet for long periods. Others may become easily upset. Family separation is another issue. Some children are alone without parents. Some live with caregivers who are also stressed. When adults are not emotionally stable, children receive less support (UNICEF, 2021). This increases feelings of loneliness. Stress can also affect learning. Children may find it hard to focus. They may forget things easily. This makes school more difficult even when education is available. Living Conditions and Their Impact Living conditions in refugee camps affect children’s mental health (UNICEF, 2021). Many camps are crowded. Families live close together. Privacy is very limited. Housing is often temporary. These conditions can create daily stress. Children may not feel safe. The environment may change often. This makes it hard to feel stable or secure.Education is also affected. Many children cannot go to school regularly. Some have no access to school at all. Education is important because it gives structure. It also gives children a daily routine.Without school, children may feel bored or disconnected. They may lose motivation over time (UNICEF, 2021). Play is also important for children. It helps them learn and express emotions. In many camps, safe play areas are limited. Without play, children may become quiet or withdrawn (IASC, 2007).Long-term stress can affect the brain. It can reduce memory and attention. It can also make learning harder. These effects may continue into adulthood (WHO, 2022). Social and emotional development Refugee camp life also affects social development. Children may find it hard to make friends. They may speak different languages. Some children also feel unsafe around others. This can reduce social interaction. Emotional development is also affected. Some children do not express feelings easily. Others may react strongly to small events. This makes emotional control difficult. However, children can improve when they feel safe. Support from adults and friends helps recovery. Support and Interventions Mental health and psychosocial support (MHPSS) programs are used in refugee camps. One common support system is child-friendly spaces. These are safe areas for children. They can play, learn, and relax. These spaces help reduce stress. They also bring routine into daily life (UNHCR, 2023; UNICEF, 2023). Children can draw, play games, and join group activities. These activities help them express feelings in simple ways. Counseling is also important. Trained workers support children who are stressed or traumatized. Some children cannot talk about their feelings. In these cases, play, drawing, and storytelling are used (IASC, 2007). These methods help children express emotions safely. Community programs also help. Families, teachers, and local workers take part. They support children in daily life. Parenting programs are also used. These help caregivers understand children better. They also improve communication between parents and children. Strong family support helps recovery (UNHCR, 2023). Organizations like UNICEF, UNHCR, and WHO support these programs. They provide training, funding, and guidance. They also help improve child protection and education in camps (WHO, 2022). Role of education Education plays an important role in recovery. School gives children structure. It gives them daily routine. It also helps them feel normal. Even basic education in camps can reduce stress. It also helps children stay focused on the future. Teachers can also support children emotionally. They can notice when a child is struggling. They can guide them to support services when needed. When education is stable, children recover better. Long-term effects The effects of displacement can last for many years. Some children continue to face emotional problems later in life. These may include anxiety, depression, or fear of social situations. However, many children also recover well. This depends on the support they receive. Stable environments help recovery. So does education and family support. Early help is also very important. Children who receive support early are more likely to recover fully. Thailand Mental health problems among refugee children are a serious global issue. These problems come from trauma, displacement, and unstable living conditions. They affect emotions, learning, and social development. However, support systems can help reduce these effects. Education, safe spaces, counseling, and family support all improve outcomes. Emergency help is important. But long-term support is also needed for recovery. Supporting refugee children is a humanitarian responsibility. It is also an investment in the future. With proper care, children can recover and rebuild stable lives (UNICEF, 2021). ==Education==

Education shifts with the different stages of the refugee experience. The report, "Missing Out: Refugee Education in Crisis", compares UNHCR sources and statistics on refugee education with data on school enrollment around the world provided by UNESCO, the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization. The report notes that, globally, 91 percent of children attend primary school. For all refugees, that figure is at 61 percent. Specifically in low-income countries, less than 50 percent of refugees are able to attend primary school. As refugee children get older, school enrollment rates drop: only 23 percent of refugee adolescents are enrolled in secondary school, versus the global figure of 84 percent. In low-income countries, nine percent of refugees are able to go to secondary school. Across the world, enrollment in tertiary education stands at 36 percent. For refugees, the percentage remains at one percent. In 2016, at the General Assembly Summit for Refugees and Migrants, the UNHCR called "for a broad partnership between government humanitarian agencies, development partners and the private sector to address the huge gaps in the provision of quality education for all refugees". Following this summit, the UNHCR met with companies, governments and philanthropists at the 2016 World Humanitarian Summit in Turkey to create the "Education Cannot Wait fund, an initiative to meet the educational needs of millions children and youth affected by crises around the world". Education is crucial for the sufficient psychosocial adjustment and cognitive growth of refugee children. Graham, Minhas, and Paxton (2016) note in their study that parents' misunderstandings about educational styles, teachers' low expectations and stereotyping tendencies, bullying and racial discrimination, pre-migration and post-migration trauma, and forced detention can all be risk factors for learning problems in refugee children. They also note that high academic and life ambition, parents' involvement in education, a supportive home and school environment, teachers' understanding of linguistic and cultural heritage, and healthy peer relationships can all contribute to a refugee child's success in school. While the initial purpose of refugee education was to prepare students to return to their home countries, now the focus of American refugee education is on integration. it also impacts their access to education and their ability to succeed in their host country. Education services for refugees and immigrants in the United States are inadequate. A recent study revealed that 54% of refugee children in the United States suffer academic problems. With poor educational support, refugees and immigrants have little social, economic, and political power and are unable to self-advocate. Academic and social education is integral for enhancing their power because it provides them with tools such as language and communication skills and understanding of their host society. Access to education Structure of the education system Schools in North America lack the necessary resources for supporting refugee children, particularly in negotiating their academic experience and in addressing the diverse learning needs of refugee children. Complex schooling policies that vary by classroom, building and district, and procedures that require written communication or parent involvement intimidate the parents of refugee children. The availability of sufficient classrooms and teachers is low and many discriminatory policies and practices prohibit refugee children from attending school. Many refugee children face legal restrictions to schooling, even in countries of first asylum. This is the case especially for countries that have not signed the 1951 Refugee Convention or its 1967 Protocol. The 1951 Convention and 1967 Protocol both emphasize the right to education for refugees, articulating the definition of refugeehood in international contexts. Nevertheless, refugee students have one of the lowest rates of access to education. The UNHCR reported in 2014 that about 50 percent of refugee children had access to education compared to children globally at 93 percent. In Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, unregistered refugee children described being hesitant to go to school, due to risk of encountering legal authorities at school or while on the way to and from school. There need to be policies and programs in place to help refugees and immigrant children. Refugee children experience so many changes and hardships, including disruptions in their schooling; schools need to be a grounding and stable place for them, otherwise they will not learn to their best potential. Schools need to help students navigate everyday life in a foreign place. Schools are also protection for refugee and immigrant children who are particularly vulnerable to trafficking and other forms of violence and forced labor due to a lack of knowledge of their host societies. teacher-centered instruction often predominates in refugee classrooms. Teachers lecture for the majority of the time, offering few opportunities for students to ask questions or engage in creative thinking. In order to address the lack of attention to refugee education in national school systems, the UNHCR developed formal relationships with twenty national ministries of education in 2016 to oversee the political commitment to refugee education at the nation-state level. The UNCHR introduced an adaptive global strategy for refugee education with the aim of "integration of refugee learners within national system where possible and appropriate and as guided by ongoing consultation with refugees". This puts a burden on refugee children to be more self sufficient in their everyday life, as well as in their schooling, where they face classroom and homework challenges on their own. They often are also tasked with burdens not faced by other students, such as translating for their family members and helping fill in government forms and filing taxes. This added responsibility interferes with their focus on their school work. Insufficient communication due to language and cultural barriers may evoke a sense of alienation or "being the other" in a new society. The clash between cultural values of the family and popular culture in mainstream Western society leads to the alienation of refugee children from their home culture. Contemporary Vietnamese American adolescents are prone to greater uncertainties, self-doubts and emotional difficulties than other American adolescents. Vietnamese children are less likely to say they have much to be proud of, that they like themselves as they are, that they have many good qualities, and that they feel socially accepted. Refugee students are also subject to bullying due to language barriers when attending public schools in their host countries. Bullying is commonly around refugee students' inability to speak the host language perfectly. This type of bullying discourages refugee students to continue learning the language and undermines their confidence in their academic abilities. refugee mother and children at a kindergarten in upper Afula, 1979 Other obstacles Although high-quality education helps refugee children feel safe in the present and enable them to be productive in the future, some do not find success in school. Successful educators help children process trauma they may have experienced in their country of origin while supporting their academic adjustment. Refugee children benefit from established and encouraged communication between student and teacher, and also between different students in the classroom. A booklet published in 2000 written by Dr. Sheila and Dr. Dick detailed the ways teachers can approach refugee children in school as well as the common problems refugee children present with at school. According to the booklet, refugees can come from traumatizing situations and thus may struggle with school attendance, literacy, and their cultural identity. One study encourages teachers to be aware of common behavioral problems that refugee children may exhibit in the classroom like anger, withdrawal, rule testing, problems with authority, inability to concentrate, inappropriate behavior, lower academic achievement. Experiences such as these heavily shape a student's learning ability and educational needs. Teachers must be equipped with not only increased training to address students facing these issues, but the ability to increase student participation in their instruction and allow for the classroom assimilation of students with limited backgrounds in formal education Academic adjustment of refugee children Teachers can make the transition to a new school easier for refugee children by providing interpreters. Refugee children benefit from a case-by-case approach to learning, because every child has had a different experience during their resettlement. Communities where the refugee populations are bigger should work with the schools to initiate after school, summer school, or weekend clubs that give the children more opportunities to adjust to their new educational setting. The teaching style of the International High School of Laguardia Community College in Long Island City, New York, a school for English language learners such as immigrants and refugees, exemplifies the current research done in this area. This high school has not only been extremely successful in teaching these students, but the students of this high school have noteworthy success rates after graduating. The study analyzing this program demonstrates that this success was achieved by addressing the specific needs of immigrant students, supporting their English language learning through providing them with more personalized instruction, adapting the curriculum to be culturally relevant, and creating an environment of inter-student collaboration. A 2016 study conducted by Dr. Thomas found that education helps refugee children feel socially included within their new culture. For example, Dr. Thomas noted that education often provided a sense of stability as well as support in developing language, cultural, and technical skills. These schools do not focus on integrating students into public schools or into their host society. These schools are also not regulated and do not provide good quality education. However, the degree and kind of assimilation varies, as demonstrated by Alejandro Portes and Min Zhou's theory of segmented assimilation. According to Xie and Greenman, that theory posits three paths to assimilation in the United States. The first theory, related to the theory of classical assimilation, is of increasing integration into the American middle class. In contrast, the second theory is of assimilation into the urban underclass, which according to Xie and Greenman leads to poverty and downward mobility. The third theory of selective acculturation highlights conserving the culture of the immigrant community paired with economic integration. With additive assimilation strategy, cultural ties are kept while refugee children continue integrating economically and in their educational institutions. Classical assimilation negatively impacts refugee education by making assimilation more difficult from the start, in addition to perpetuating prejudice and ethnic discrimination. By exalting American identity as the standard, classical assimilation perpetuates racial hierarchies and stereotypes. The second method, acculturation and assimilation into the urban underclass, is even more susceptible to exacerbating institutionalized racism and legacies of xenophobia. Acculturation and assimilation into the urban underclass refers to assimilation into disadvantaged and impoverished communities within the United States, furthering the cycle of poverty and struggle that many refugees are seeking to escape in the first place. This second method is again an example of legacies of racism and xenophobia, as it preys upon the historic marginalization of ethnic minority communities in the United States. Additionally, public education in the United States for the urban underclass faces a variety of issues independent of refugee education programs – the second method of assimilation results in refugees assimilating to communities that are historically underserved educationally, even without taking into account the various barriers and negative impacts of poorly run refugee education programs. The International Network of Public Schools have established schools in the United States that are specific for refugee students but also provide a framework where students will eventually be integrated in the public school systems and in society in a way that values their culture and background. The PBEA program in Kenya's Dadaab refugee camp aimed to strengthen resilience and social cohesion in the camp, as well as between refugees and the host community. studies have found that the attitudes of parents and teachers can also have a strong influence on students' internalization of peace values. Teachers from Cyprus also resisted a peace education program initiated by the government. Another study found that, while teachers supported the prospect of reconciliation, ideological and practical concerns made them uncertain about the effective implementation of a peace education program. Pedagogical Approaches Refugees fall into a unique situation where the nation-state may not adequately address their educational needs, and the international relief system is tasked with the role of a "pseudo-state" in developing a curriculum and pedagogical approach. Critical pedagogical approaches to refugee education address the phenomenon of alienation that migrant students face in schools outside of their home countries, where the positioning of English language teachers and their students create power dynamics emphasizing the inadequacies of foreign-language speakers, intensified by the use of compensatory programs to cater to 'at-risk' students. In order to adequately address state-less migrant populations, curricula has to be relevant to the experiences of transnational youth. One way to incorporate the experiences of transnational youth in the classroom is through what scholars have described as Narrative and Constructive Education. In Narrative and Constructive Education, teachers are often themselves immigrants and they share their own personal experience to "connect and inspire their students". This teaching method has proved to be effective in a case study of schools that are part of Ednovate, a charter school management company located in Southern California that contains a majority ethnic immigrant and first-generation population. Pedagogical researchers and policy makers can benefit from lessons learned through participatory action research in refugee camps, where student cited decreased self-esteem associated with a lack of education. == Extracurricular resources ==

An interventional study conducted by Dr. Kendall in California documented that the main resources provided to refugee children and their families fall under these categories: supplementary classroom material, curriculum enrichment resources, videos for the goal or increasing parent and school awareness, informational leaflets and handbooks, as well as ICT based resources. The study also found that extracurricular activities provided by Los Angeles schools enhanced refugee student involvement in school life by reducing isolation. According to a study by Dr. Roxas, refugees often do not have access to school programs that can meet their unique academic, developmental, and social needs; thus, their integration into public schools becomes difficult due to language, trauma, and lack of counseling and extra academic services. One extracurricular program that the study detailed involved bringing in local community members to interact with the refugee children for the purpose of exposing them to the real world. The study states that the inclusivity of schools can be improved by increasing the cultural basis of recreational support, more diverse cafeteria food, and prayer rooms for Muslim students. For example, community wide collaboration between the school and surrounding organizations can help refugee students achieve their full potential. Dr. Brunick's paper also found that art served as a valuable extracurricular tool for refugees to reconcile with psychological trauma. According to Dr. O'Shea's 2000 article, inside the school but outside of the curriculum, school based mental health services have been shown to reduce SDQ scores and dramatic positive implications to those exposed to SES and traumatic adversities. The study conducted by Dr. Thomas recommended training for school social workers to help refugee children manage stress and trauma. A 2017 research paper also found that refugee children express their individuality and culture through drawings, think-aloud techniques, and Acculturation, Habits, and Interests Multicultural Scale for Adolescent instrument in order them to cope with their transitions and express their culture. A research paper focused on policies put in place for refugees in the school system indicated that refugees in Jordan often face institutional discrimination where they do not have the same access to extracurricular activities. According to the paper, funding for refugee education often comes from an emergency fund leading to a lack in long term-planning, which can lead to refugees being educated in separate schools and informal community based schools. Iran has a policy including refugees into their education system allowing refugees to join in the same extracurricular programs. A 2011 review noted that schools alone do not provide enough support for refugees and their cultural and linguistic needs. Thus the paper suggests that secondary school programs like the Refugee Action Support (RAS) program can benefit refugee literacy by creating a partnership of schools and non-government organizations. Programs Dr. Georgis's 2014 book offers another example of extracurricular support for refugee children called involved Transition support programs. The study suggests that this program offers classroom support for English Language learners, after school activities involving recreational activities and homework help, as well as parental support that includes English as well as computer classes. In school services include interpretation, translation, personal communication through phone by the school to the homes, cultural mediation and advocacy. For example, tutors provided assistance in completing assignments. A research paper analyzing ACE by Heidi Lynn Biron found that ACE provides support for refugees who struggle with exclusion and school as a result of their English skills and trauma. The study recommended peer support groups, so the children can share their stress with each other. == Disabilities ==

Children with disabilities frequently suffer physical and sexual abuse, exploitation, and neglect. They are often not only excluded from education, but also not provided the necessary supports for realizing and reaching their full potential. In refugee camps and temporary shelters, the needs of children with disabilities are often overlooked. In particular, a study surveying Bhutanese refugee camps in Nepal, Burmese refugee camps in Thailand, Somali refugee camps in Yemen, the Dadaab refugee camp for Somali refugees in Kenya, and camps for internally displaced persons in Sudan and Sri Lanka, found that many mainstream services failed to adequately cater to the specific needs of children with disabilities. The study reported that mothers in Nepal and Yemen have been unable to receive formulated food for children with cerebral palsy and cleft palates. The same study also found that, although children with disabilities were attending school in all surveyed countries, and refugee camps in Nepal and Thailand have successful programs that integrate children with disabilities into schools, all other surveyed countries have failed to encourage children with disabilities to attend school. In Jordan, too, Syrian refugee children with disabilities identified lack of specialist educational care and physical inaccessibility as the main barriers to their education. Likewise, limited attention is being given to refugee children with disabilities in the United Kingdom. It was reported in February 2017 that its government has decided to partially suspend the Vulnerable Children's Resettlement Scheme, originally set to resettle 3,000 children with their families from countries in the Middle East and North Africa. As a result of this suspension, no youth with complex needs, including those with disabilities and learning difficulties, would be accepted into the program until further notice. While it was reported in 2013 that 26 percent of all Syrian refugees in Jordan had impaired physical, intellectual, or sensory abilities, such data specifically for children do not exist. ==See also==