The origin story for poetry comes from a myth by Snorri Sturluson. The story depicts poetry as a liquid that takes various forms. The point of this is to show that poetry has gone through and will continue to go through change. The
dróttkvætt metre appears to have been an innovation associated with a new fashion in formally more elaborate poetry associated with named poets. The metre has been compared to Irish and Latin poetic forms, which may have influenced its development. Origins in magic have also been suggested, because of the existence of skaldic curses (such as
Egill Skallagrímsson's on King
Eric Bloodaxe) and because there are 10th-century magical inscriptions on
runestones in the metre. Since the first example of skaldic poetry of which we know is
Bragi Boddason's
Ragnarsdrápa from the early 9th century, some have argued that he and his associates invented it, but his work is already highly accomplished, suggesting that this style of poetry had been developing for some time. Bragi (whom many scholars consider was deified as the god
Bragi) was a Norwegian, and skaldic poetry is thought to have originated in either Norway or the Scandinavian Baltic. Most of the skalds of whom we know spent all or part of their careers as court poets, One example of this is the Heimskringla by Snorri Sturlson. A third of the book focuses on Olaf II Haraldsson. Their accuracy has been the subject of debate, Skalds at the court at Hlaðir have been credited with developing the
Valhalla complex and the cult of
Odin as an aristocratic, educated form of heathenism influenced by Christian
eschatology. Poetic ability was highly valued; the art was practised by the Norwegian kings themselves, and several skalds, such as
Egill Skallagrímsson, are the subject of their own biographical sagas. and from the second half of the 10th century, all known court skalds were from Iceland or the Orkney Islands. In the 12th century, a century after the conversion of Iceland, some skalds reintroduced heathen kennings as literary formulae, interest in ancient tradition was revived, and
drápur were produced on historical figures, such as
Einarr Skúlason's
Geisli on Olaf Tryggvason, composed 150 years after his death. Skalds experimented with new metres, notably
hrynhent, which uses longer lines than
dróttkvætt Despite these adaptations, the skaldic tradition itself was endangered by the popularity of newer and simpler forms of poetry and loss of knowledge of the kenning tradition.
Snorri Sturluson's
Prose Edda, a handbook produced around 1220 that includes a guide to the metres, an explanation of kennings and their mythological and heroic bases grounded in contemporary learning, and numerous examples that preserve many skaldic verses, enabled skaldic poetry to continue in Iceland after the tradition of court poetry ended in the 13th century. Christian religious poetry became an increasingly important part of the skaldic tradition beginning in the 12th century.
Eysteinn Ásgrímsson's
Lilja was particularly influential: it uses the
hrynhent metre and almost no kennings, and was much imitated. Christian skaldic poetry died out in Iceland only with the
Protestant Reformation of the 16th century, although that produced after 1400 is rarely studied as part of the skaldic corpus.
Notable skalds More than 300 skalds are known from the period between 800 and 1200 AD. Many are listed in the
Skáldatal, a list of court skalds by the ruler they served that runs from the legendary
Ragnar Lodbrok to the late 13th century and includes some poets from whom no verses are preserved. Notable names include: •
Bragi Boddason "the Old", early 9th century •
Þorbjörn Hornklofi, 9th century, court poet of King
Harald Fairhair •
Þjóðólfr of Hvinir, active
c. 900 •
Eyvindr skáldaspillir, 10th century •
Egill Skallagrímsson, first half of the 10th century, protagonist of
Egils saga •
Kormákr Ögmundarson, mid-10th century, protagonist of
Kormáks saga •
Eilífr Goðrúnarson, late 10th century •
Þórvaldr Hjaltason, 10th century, a skald of King
Eric the Victorious •
Hallfreðr vandræðaskáld, late 10th century, court poet of King
Olaf Tryggvason •
Einarr Helgason "skálaglamm", late 10th century •
Úlfr Uggason, late 10th century •
Tindr Hallkelsson, active
c. 1000, one of Jarl
Hákon Sigurðarson's court poets •
Gunnlaugr Ormstunga, 10th–11th century, nicknamed "Wormtongue" on account of his propensity for satire and invective •
Sigvatr Þórðarson, first half of the 11th century, court poet to King
Olaf Haraldsson (Saint Olaf) •
Þórarinn loftunga, first half of the 11th century, a court poet to
Sveinn Knútsson •
Óttarr svarti, first half of the 11th century, a skald at the court of King
Olof Skötkonung and King
Olaf Haraldsson •
Valgarðr á Velli, mid-11th century, court poet to King
Harald Hardrada •
Þjóðólfr Arnórsson, mid-11th century, court poet to King
Magnus the Good and King Harald Hardrada •
Arnórr jarlaskáld, mid-11th century, court poet to the
Jarls of Orkney and several Norwegian kings •
Einarr Skúlason, 12th century •
Eysteinn Ásgrímsson, mid-14th century, monk who adapted skaldic tradition to high medieval Christianity Many
lausavísur attributed in sagas to women have traditionally been regarded as inauthentic, and few female skalds are known by name. They include: •
Hildr Hrólfsdóttir, 9th century •
Jórunn skáldmær, first half of the 10th century •
Steinunn Refsdóttir, late 10th century •
Steinvör Sighvatsdóttir, 13th century ==Editions==