Scholasticism was used by Protestant theologians primarily from 1560 to 1790, which is known as the period of orthodoxy because of the importance of adherence to and defense of the newly written
Reformed confessions of faith for these theologians.
John Calvin (1509–1564) John Calvin, unlike other early reformers like
Martin Luther, was not formally trained in theology; while Calvin was trained in law, Luther was trained in both law
and theology. Like many early reformers, however, he was influenced by
Renaissance humanism, which led to an interest in the
original meaning of biblical and
patristic texts and criticism of medieval scholastics for straying from this meaning in favor of philosophical distinctions. Analysis of his work, however, shows that he found himself using some of the same distinctions employed by the scholastics, and some of the criticisms he made of scholastic theology may have actually been based on his own misunderstanding. It is clear, however, that Calvin's use of scholastic theology is different in that, while medieval scholastic theology was solely employed by professional theologians in the schools, rather than by ordinary clergy in
preaching, Calvin saw theological teaching as one of the primary objectives of the church and intended his theological works to be used by both preachers and common people. Many of his criticisms of purely speculative scholastic theology may be seen as a consequence of his desire to make theology accessible and useful for the church rather than solely for professional theologians in the schools.
Early orthodoxy (1560–1620) Though scholasticism can already be seen in early Reformed theologians, especially
Vermigli and to some degree
Calvin, it became much more prevalent during the third and fourth generations of Reformed theologians as a tool to institutionalize the faith by codifying it in confessions and works of
systematic theology, as well as to combat the growing sophistication of
counter-Reformation polemicists.
Reformed confessions of faith such as the
Heidelberg Catechism of 1563 (commissioned by
Elector Frederick III of the
Palatinate), the
Belgic Confession of 1561, and the French
Gallican Confession of 1559 served as boundary markers for the new faith and as starting places for theological development. The formation of the
Genevan Academy in 1559 also enabled Reformed theologians to receive extensive academic training and participate in the wider academic theological discourse. It also served as a model for other Reformed institutions of higher learning throughout Europe.
Counter-Reformation attacks from Roman Catholic writers such as
Jesuit Cardinal Robert Bellarmine were written in the tradition of scholasticism and needed to be answered in kind. Reformed theologians such as
Heidelberg professors
Zacharias Ursinus and
Girolamo Zanchi adopted the tools of scholastic theology such as the
quaestio method to rigorously exposit the Reformed confessions. The early 17th-century
Arminian controversy, in which a group known as the
Remonstrants argued that
predestination to salvation is based on God foreseeing a person's faith, brought about the
Synod of Dort, which defined the Reformed doctrine on this matter in greater detail. The 1594 treatise by
Huguenot theologian
Franciscus Junius On True Theology was the first Protestant work to distinguish
archetypal theology (God's knowledge of himself) and ectypal theology (our knowledge of God based on his condescending revelation to us). This distinction, which has its roots in the medieval
Scotist distinction between theology in itself (
theologia in se) and our theology (
theologia nostra), limits the degree to which God can be known by sinful man and became important in later Reformed and Lutheran theology. Through the influence of refugees from continental Europe such as
Martin Bucer and Peter Martyr Vermigli, late 16th century English theology was predominately Reformed in nature, though
Arminianism gained dominance after 1700.
Puritans William Perkins and
William Ames were important figures in Reformed English theology during this period. Reformed theologians at the
University of St. Andrews assured Calvinism's hold on Scotland.
High orthodoxy (1620–1700) Following the Synod of Dort, which ended in 1619, the Reformed began to give greater definition and detail to their theological system by writing comprehensive systematic theologies. The period was also characterized by intense polemical writing against several groups. The Remonstrants, having been repudiated in the synod of Dort, became an independent movement with their own seminary and dogmatic textbooks, and the Reformed wrote against them with even greater intensity. Reformed polemics were also directed against the increasingly influential
Socinians, who denied the
Trinity and other traditional Christian doctrines. Early Socinians had already had some influence on the development of Remonstrantism during the early orthodox period. In addition, the rise of
Cartesianism provided another target for Reformed scholastics such as Dutch theologian
Gisbertus Voetius, who argued that
Descartes's philosophical skepticism placed reason above revelation instead of subjecting reason to biblical revelation. In the Netherlands, three strands within Reformed orthodoxy may be distinguished, though all of these stayed within the boundaries provided by the Canons of Dort. The
theologia traditiva was most notably represented by
Samuel Maresius and
Friedrich Spanheim the Elder and
Younger. This strain was in many ways aligned with a second strain, the school of Voetius. Unlike the Voetians, however, the followers of the
theologia traditiva were
infralapsarian, arguing that God's decree to create men and allow the
Fall logically precedes the decree to elect some men to salvation. They also, contrary to the Voetians, approved of some degree of governmental involvement in church affairs, were more lax with respect to
Sabbath observance, and were in general more moderate polemicists. Differences between these groups decreased throughout the 17th century, as they positioned themselves against a third strain, the Cocceians. The school of
Johannes Cocceius differed from the Voetians and the rest of Reformed scholastic theology in teaching on the relationship of the Old and New Testament. The Cocceians taught that the
Sabbath commandment was abrogated in the
New Covenant and had other disagreements regarding the relationship between the
covenant of works and the
covenant of grace. Though Cocceius himself rejected Cartesianism, some of his followers were influenced by it and this led to even more suspicion of the Coccieans on behalf of the rest of the Reformed. In France,
Moses Amyraut at the
Academy of Saumur taught a doctrine known as
Amyraldism which is considered a compromise between the doctrine of predestination presented at the Synod of Dort and that of Arminianism. Amyraut taught that God elects to salvation in two ways. First, the entire human race is elected to salvation on condition of their faith in him. Then, based on his foreknowledge that no one would have faith, God elects some to salvation in a second, particular election. Most Reformed scholastics rejected Amyraut's views, arguing that it was a return to Arminianism because the first decree of election was conditional on faith. The Swiss
Formula consensus Helvetica was written primarily by
Johann Heinrich Heidegger with help from
Francis Turretin to repudiate Amyraldism. In England, many of the Reformed, along with some other Protestants refused to remain within the
Anglican church and were thus known as
Nonconformists. They were divided between
Presbyterians (who maintained a hierarchical church government),
Independents or
Congregationalists (who advocated the autonomy of local churches), and
Baptists (who through the influence of Dutch
Anabaptists practiced only
believer's baptism). The 1647
Westminster Confession of Faith established a consensus among them.
Late orthodoxy (1700–1790) was a significant
particular Baptist theologian in the late orthodox period. During the eighteenth century the scholastic method of theology began to stagnate in favor of exegetical and
historical theology. The
Age of Enlightenment brought about greater reliance on reason and less dependence on the authority of authoritative texts such as the Bible, leading to the rise of
biblical criticism and
natural theology. In the Netherlands the "Green Cocceians" (named after Henricus Groenewegen, Groen = Green in Dutch) surpassed the Voetians who had been dominant in the 17th century. They attempted to find a mediating position between Enlightenment thought and Reformed theology, which resulted in intense controversy with other Reformed scholastics. Enlightenment thought was even more influential in Germany and England, leading to the rise of deism, biblical criticism, and rationalism at the expense of scholastic modes of thinking.
John Gill defended the English
particular Baptists, who taught the Reformed doctrine of
limited atonement, from the influence of Arminianism and Socianism and is considered one of the most important Reformed scholastics of the 18th century. Reformed scholastic theology was more dominant in Scotland. The
Marrow Controversy, which began in 1718, was caused by disagreements between so-called the neonomians and
antinomians over the relationship of the covenant of works and covenant of grace. The opposing sides often used scholastic distinctions and methods. The controversy ended with the split of the Church of Scotland and the establishment of the
Associate Presbytery. In Switzerland the Enlightenment had a significant impact on the shape of Reformed theology.
Jean Alphonse Turretin, son of high orthodox scholastic Francis Turretin, along with
Jean-Frédéric Osterwald and
Samuel Werenfels rejected the doctrine of predestination, the Synod of Dort, and the Helvetic Consensus. ==Important figures==