(384–322 BC), who exerted a profound and pervasive influence for more than two thousand years" —Gary B. Ferngren gave
chemistry its modern name. Generally referred to as the father of
mineralogy and the founder of
geology as a scientific discipline. , one of the founders and fathers of modern
astronomy, the
scientific method,
natural and
modern science. , the inventor of the
electrical battery and discoverer of
methane, is widely regarded as one of the greatest scientists in history. , referred to as the "father of modern parasitology", is the founder of experimental biology. , who is regarded as "the towering figure of the
Scientific Revolution", and who achieved the
first great unification in physics, created classical mechanics, calculus and refined the scientific method. , for whom the word "scientist" was coined. developed the general theory of relativity and made many substantial contributions to physics. is credited with the creation of the world's first atomic bomb and nuclear reactor. made fundamental contributions to understanding atomic structure and quantum theory. launched the 20th century
environmental movement. The roles of "scientists", and their predecessors before the emergence of modern scientific disciplines, have evolved considerably over time. Scientists of different eras (and before them, natural philosophers, mathematicians, natural historians, natural theologians, engineers, and others who contributed to the development of science) have had widely different places in society, and the
social norms,
ethical values, and
epistemic virtues associated with scientists—and expected of them—have changed over time as well. Accordingly, many different historical figures can be identified as early scientists, depending on which characteristics of modern science are taken to be essential. Some historians point to the
Scientific Revolution that began in 16th century as the period when science in a recognizably modern form developed. It was not until the 19th century that sufficient socioeconomic changes had occurred for scientists to emerge as a major profession.
Classical antiquity Knowledge about nature in classical antiquity was pursued by many kinds of scholars.
Greek contributions to science—including works of geometry and mathematical astronomy, early accounts of biological processes and catalogs of plants and animals, and theories of knowledge and learning—were produced by
philosophers and
physicians, as well as practitioners of various trades. These roles, and their associations with scientific knowledge, spread with the
Roman Empire and, with the
spread of Christianity, became closely linked to religious institutions in most European countries.
Astrology and
astronomy became an important area of knowledge, and the role of astronomer/astrologer developed with the support of political and religious
patronage. By the time of the
medieval university system, knowledge was divided into the
trivium—philosophy, including
natural philosophy—and the
quadrivium—mathematics, including astronomy. Hence, the medieval analogs of scientists were often either philosophers or mathematicians. Knowledge of plants and animals was broadly the province of physicians.
Middle Ages Science in medieval Islam developed new approaches to acquiring natural knowledge, although these developments remained within existing social roles such as philosopher and mathematician. Many proto-scientists of the
Islamic Golden Age are considered
polymaths, partly because there were no clearly defined
scientific disciplines as understood today. Several of these early polymaths were also religious scholars. For example,
Alhazen and
al-Biruni were associated with
mutakallimiin; the physician
Avicenna was a
hafiz; the physician
Ibn al-Nafis was a hafiz,
muhaddith, and
ulema; the botanist
Otto Brunfels was a theologian and historian of Protestantism; and the astronomer and physician
Nicolaus Copernicus was a cleric. During the
Italian Renaissance, figures such as
Leonardo da Vinci,
Michelangelo,
Galileo Galilei, and
Gerolamo Cardano are often regarded as notable polymaths.
Renaissance During the
Renaissance, Italian scholars made significant contributions to science.
Leonardo da Vinci made notable observations in paleontology and anatomy.
Galileo Galilei, sometimes referred to as the father of modern science, improved the thermometer and telescope, enabling more detailed observations of the
Solar System.
Descartes pioneered
analytic geometry, formulated a
theory of
mechanics, and proposed ideas concerning
animal movement and
perception. Research into
vision engaged physicists such as
Thomas Young and
Hermann von Helmholtz, who also studied
optics,
hearing, and
music.
Isaac Newton expanded upon earlier mathematical developments by co-inventing
calculus (independently of
Leibniz). He formulated the principles of
classical mechanics and conducted extensive investigations into
light and optics.
Joseph Fourier developed the theory of
infinite periodic series, studied
heat transfer and
infrared radiation, and described what later became known as the
greenhouse effect. Mathematicians including
Girolamo Cardano,
Blaise Pascal,
Pierre de Fermat,
John von Neumann,
Alan Turing,
Aleksandr Khinchin,
Andrey Markov, and
Norbert Wiener made major contributions to mathematics and
probability theory, including foundational work relevant to
computer science,
statistical mechanics, and
quantum mechanics. Several mathematically inclined scientists, including Galileo, were also accomplished
musicians. Developments in
medicine and
biology included advances in understanding the circulation of
blood, from
Galen to
Harvey. Some scholars and historians have argued that
Christianity contributed to the rise of the
Scientific Revolution.
Age of Enlightenment During the
Age of Enlightenment,
Luigi Galvani, a pioneer of
bioelectromagnetics, investigated what he termed "animal electricity." He observed that applying an electrical charge to the spinal cord of a frog could produce muscular spasms throughout its body. Even detached frog legs were seen to twitch when exposed to electrical stimulation. In one experiment, Galvani noted that a steel scalpel touching a brass hook holding a frog’s leg caused the leg to contract. Further experiments reinforced these observations, leading Galvani to conclude that he was witnessing a form of intrinsic electrical force within animal tissue. At the
University of Pavia, his colleague
Alessandro Volta replicated the results but questioned Galvani's interpretation.
Lazzaro Spallanzani was a prominent figure in experimental physiology and the natural sciences. His investigations had a lasting influence on medical science, particularly in the experimental study of bodily functions and animal reproduction.
Francesco Redi demonstrated that
microorganisms could cause
disease.
19th century Until the late 19th or early 20th century, scientists were commonly referred to as "
natural philosophers" or "men of science". English philosopher and historian of science
William Whewell coined the term
scientist in 1833. It first appeared in print in his anonymous 1834 review of
Mary Somerville's
On the Connexion of the Physical Sciences, published in the
Quarterly Review. In the review, Whewell discussed what he described as an increasing tendency toward specialization within the sciences. As highly specific terms such as
chemist,
mathematician, and
naturalist became common, the broader term
philosopher no longer adequately described those engaged in scientific study. Whewell contrasted this trend with Somerville's aim of demonstrating how distinct branches of science had historically been unified through general principles. Whewell reported that members of the
British Association for the Advancement of Science had expressed concern over the absence of a suitable collective term for "students of the knowledge of the material world." Referring indirectly to himself, he noted that "some ingenious gentleman" had proposed the word
scientist by analogy with
artist, arguing that similar formations such as
economist and
atheist were already in use. The suggestion, however, was not immediately well received. Whewell later proposed the term again, more explicitly, in his 1840 work
The Philosophy of the Inductive Sciences. He also proposed the term
physicist as a counterpart to the French
physicien. Neither term gained widespread acceptance immediately.
Scientist became common in the late 19th century in the United States and around the turn of the 20th century in
Great Britain. By the twentieth century, the modern concept of science as a distinct body of knowledge, practiced by a specialized community and pursued through recognized methods, had become firmly established.
20th century Marie Curie became the first woman to win the Nobel Prize and the first person to win it twice. Her efforts led to the development of nuclear energy and Radiotherapy for the treatment of cancer. In 1922, she was appointed a member of the International Commission on Intellectual Co-operation by the Council of the League of Nations. She campaigned for scientist's right to patent their discoveries and inventions. She also campaigned for free access to international scientific literature and for internationally recognized scientific symbols. ==Profession==