The exact qualifications for labeling a group a secret society are disputed, but definitions generally rely on the degree to which the organization insists on secrecy and might involve the retention and transmission of secret knowledge, the denial of membership or knowledge of the group, the creation of personal bonds between members of the organization, and the use of secret rites or rituals.
Anthropologically and
historically, secret societies have been deeply interlinked with the concept of the
Männerbund, the all-male "warrior-band" or "warrior-society" of pre-modern cultures (see H. Schurtz,
Alterklassen und Männerbünde, Berlin, 1902;
A. Van Gennep,
The Rites of Passage, Chicago, 1960). A purported "
family tree of secret societies" has been proposed, although it may not be comprehensive.
Alan Axelrod, author of the
International Encyclopedia of Secret Societies and Fraternal Orders, defines a secret society as an organization that: • is exclusive • claims to own special secrets • shows a strong inclination to favor its members. Historian
Richard B. Spence of the
University of Idaho offered a similar three-pronged definition: • The group's existence is usually not kept secret, but some beliefs or practices are concealed from the public and require an oath of secrecy and loyalty to learn. • The group promises superior status or knowledge to members. • The group's membership is in some way restrictive, such as by
race,
sex,
religious affiliation, or
invitation only. Spence also proposes a sub-category of "
Elite Secret Societies" (composed of high-income or socially
influential people) and notes that secret societies have a frequent if not universal tendency towards factionalism,
infighting, and claiming origins older than can be reliably documented. Spence's definition includes groups traditionally thought of as secret societies (
Freemasons and
Rosicrucians) and other groups not so traditionally classified such as certain organized crime cabals (
the Mafia), religious groups (
Order of Assassins and
Thelema) and political movements (
Bolsheviks and
Black Dragon Society). Historian
Jasper Ridley says that
Freemasonry is "the world's most powerful secret Society". The organization "
Opus Dei" (
Latin for "Work of God") is portrayed as a "secret society" of the
Catholic Church. Critics such as the
Jesuit Wladimir Ledóchowski sometimes refer to Opus Dei as a Catholic (or
Christian or "
white") form of
Freemasonry. Other critics label Opus Dei as "Holy Mafia" or "Santa Mafia" The
National Christian Association (1868–1983) is an example of an organization opposed to secret societies. == Realms ==