Rozvi Empire

Changamire I and Mutapa A 1506 account by Diogo de Alcáçova mentions a 'Changamire' (termed "Changamire I") who revolted against Mutapa in the 1490s. The genealogy of Changamire I has been the subject of speculation by scholars. Some scholars say he was a member of the Torwa dynasty of Butua or a friend of them, while others say he was a son of Matope or that he married one of Matope's daughters. After analysing Valoyi traditions, Mathebula and Mokgoatšana say that Changamire was likely a descendant of both dynasties, being the son of Matope or having married Matope's daughter (or both were true and he married his sister). According to Alcáçova's account, rumours were spread by others close to Mukombero that Changamire, an influential Mutapa governor and member of the Torwa dynasty, was plotting for the kingship, and Mukombero ordered Changamire to undertake a poison trial, wherein if he drank the poison () and were harmed by it, he would be deemed guilty. Accordingly, c. 1490 Changamire led an army to Mukombwe's and killed him, afterwards assuming the kingship. He is also said to have killed 21 of Mukombwe's sons, with Chikuyo Chisamarengu being the only one to escape. From the late 1660s to '80s, the wider region was devastated by locusts, smallpox, measles, and plagues (the effects of which were worsened by insecurity), with many villages and fields left abandoned. Trade greatly decreased, and Mudenge estimated that over half of Mutapa's population may have died. The system involved someone loaning their cattle to another, who was permitted to keep the cattle's product and profit from it, but not to dispose of the cattle, effectively constituting vassalage. c. 1683 Dombo next turned to the Kingdom of Butua in the southwest of the Plateau. This out-migration was partly due to famine and disease in the northeast, but also because the (king) of Butua (which was wealthy) had recently won a civil war with Portuguese assistance, and their withdrawal may have left the in a weak position. Around the early-18th century, a group of Rozvi led by Sawanga migrated north to the Lower Gwai and founded the Nambya state at Hwange. Another Rozvi group led by Chireya overcame the Shangwe Confederacy on the . Accordingly, the Mhari supported Gumboremvura to the kingship, who was likely in power by 1802 and is remembered as a popular ruler. In Shona customs, losing candidates to the kingship were given territory near the capital; by 1802, one such branch of the Changamire dynasty was the Mutinhima house (whose origins vary), and its leader was reportedly the second most powerful position in the state. During Gumboremvura's reign, the Mutinhima house unsuccessfully revolted with support from the houses of Nerwande and Mavudzi, which were close advisors to the Changamire and ritually powerful. Long-standing trading partners like the Portuguese shifted their attention to slaves, thus decreasing demand for gold; thus the Shona tradition of gold mining and trade, which had lasted almost a millennium, declined and so the power of central governments like the Rozvi started to weaken. On top of all the challenges, the 1830s were a time of multiple invasions and wars that the Rozvi Empire never recovered completely from. In the area of modern-day South Africa, several events resulted in a mass exodus. Drought, invading Dutch settlers and the catastrophic aftermath of the Mfecane resulted in waves of Nguni tribes moving north. Successive attacks on the Empire by the Mpanga, Ngwana, Maseko and Zwangendaba were repelled, but did much damage. Another wave of attacks followed from the group led by the Swazi Queen Nyamazanana, resulting in the capture of the capital Manyanga and the murder of the Rozvi Mambo Chirisamhuru. Contrary to the established narrative, this was not the end of the Rozvi Empire. Chirisamhuru's son, Tohwechipi escaped and went into exile in the Buhera area. With the support of the Mutinhima and other Noble Rozvi Houses, Tohwechipi effectively became the Rozvi Mambo. Mzilikazi realized that although some of the Rozvi nobility had accepted him as King, most of the Shona did not accept him, limiting the geographic area of his Kingdom. Taking a diplomatic approach, he sent word to Tohwechipi asking him to return home and submit to him, crowning him King of the Shona. Tohwechipi did not accept Mzilikazi's offer and instead, consolidated his power and spent the next 30 years in a series of back-and-forth raids and counter-raids with Mzilikazi and eventually Lobengula, earning the nickname Chibhamubhamu because of his army of raiders armed with rifles. Tohwechipi was defeated in battle, and surrendered in 1866 and curiously, Mzilikazi let him go. He died around 1873 == Government ==

The state was headed by a (king/emperor) of the Changamire dynasty, and its capital was Danamombe (also called "Dhlo Dhlo" in Ndebele). One tradition says that Dombo stayed in "Chivari" before moving to Danamombe, and Naletale may have been used by the at times. In the state's final years, the capital may have been at Manyanga, near where Chirisamhuru died. The had a (council) whose positions were filled by Dombo's close advisors () and inherited by their lineages. They included four Chief Councillors, namely Nhale (of the (heart) totem, father of Meng'we who ruled over eastern Botswana), Mabhaya Gomo ( (calabash), father of Tumbare, head of the military), Ninjigwe (keeper of cannons seized from the Portuguese, which appeared in praises), and Ngomane ( (leg), Chief Diviner). Along with the Chief Councillors, the included two (mother's brother) lineages (Nerwande and Mavudzi), who later fulfilled the role of priests and rainmakers. There was also Bagedze Moyo, the daughter/sister of Dombo who in traditions married Chibundule and curtailed his power; she served as the leader of women, and was allocated some of the state's wealth. These positions sought to represent various segments of society, including the military, local government, women, and the priesthood (and by extension the ancestors and Mwali (God)), as well as public opinion. The 's advised him at the (royal court), which saw to national matters and was primarily attended by men. The also had a small group of bodyguards consisting of unmarried young men (). Succession to the kingship passed collaterally from brother to brother, first to the deceased 's eldest brother, then on to the next-eldest, and eventually to brothers of different houses (i.e. different mothers), before passing on to the next generation and the eldest son of the eldest brother, and so forth. As with the Mutapa state, this rotation between houses caused much conflict within the royal family, and rulers often relied on support from outside of it. Losing candidates were compensated by being allocated land near the capital. The population of the state was composed of three groups: the people of the totem (which included the ruling dynasty), the non- people who accompanied them in their migration from the northeast, and the Kalanga. The Kalanga included Butua's ruling class, which was incorporated into the state and intermarried with the Changamire dynasty. As part of their integration, the Kalanga dialect was adopted by the Rozvi, though they retained the "r" sound. The 's position depended on maintaining support from all of these groups. The state was composed of concentric zones, wherein the territory around the capital was ruled directly by the , a zone surrounding this ruled by royals, another outer zone ruled by associates of the (such as the houses and Rozvi), the core around Khami ruled by "Ndumba" (possibly Tumbare), and another zone consisting of Kalanga ruled by chiefs, along with tributaries located further from the capital. The population paid tribute () to the annually with goods that they produced, which were then redistributed throughout the state, and they also engaged in tribute labour (). In return, the population received land grants, religious ceremonies believed to bestow rain and fertility, food during drought, Portuguese trade, and protection from foreign and Rozvi armies. As happened in Mutapa, a ceremony occurred annually during which all fires in the state were put out and only relit from a fire the transferred to chiefs, symbolising submission. The custom of allowed the to approve or install chiefs and headmen, and bestow symbols of office such as a sheathed knife () and colourful trailing garment for important chiefs, and a conch whorl crown () and staff () for lesser chiefs. Chiefs were given a handful of soil on installation. Loyalty was also fostered by granting land () to various groups, which was likely also done by chiefs, and this was compounded by the system. ==Economy==

The economy was based in agropastoralism, for which there were good environmental conditions, and the region was rich in copper, gold, iron, ivory, salt (in the west), and game. People mainly worked as farmers, though could also engage in hunting, mining, and specialised crafts in their spare time and use the products for trade or tribute. Crops included sorghum and millet, and the state depended heavily on subsistence farming. Livestock was important; they kept sheep, goats, cattle and chickens; men who owned much livestock had high social status. There is little information available about local production and trade in the state. People likely mined gold in their spare time and sent a portion to the as tribute, though by the 19th century most accessible deposits had been exploited down to the water table. According to one source, copper was mined and smelted by all families, though another source stated that smithing was done by specific families who held high status. Iron, copper, and gold were made into tools and jewellery, while luxury objects were also made out of ivory, soapstone, and shells. A cotton cloth called was produced by men (though the industry was not as large as in the lower Zambezi Valley), and dyed black was especially highly valued. People paid tribute to the with goods they produced, such as tobacco, animal skins and furs, iron tools, livestock, grain, ivory, cloth, beads, and gold. People also engaged in tribute labour () for chiefs, which largely involved agricultural work, the produce of which was used to feed the workers, the chiefs' guests, and those with nothing, while also being distributed during famine. was likely also used to build chiefs' houses. It is unclear whether for the took the form of military service, agricultural work, or construction projects such as stone structures. Though according to one source the Changamires rarely built stone structures such as , and instead resided in ancient stone ruins. Wives undertook on their husbands' fields, with the produce saved for emergencies, while men paid brideprice to their parents-in-law with . The Rozvi engaged in long-distance trade with the Portuguese via Zumbo, and in the mid- to late-18th century permitted the presence of a in Manyika. The was paid a very large tax () by the Portuguese for permission to trade in the interior. Due to the Portuguese being barred from entering the Rozvi state, this trade was done through travelling merchants (), with the journey there and back taking around a year. One Portuguese source dated to 1750 lamented running off with the trade goods. The Rozvi primarily exported gold and ivory for cloth and beads, but also imported other goods such as Chinese porcelain and muzzleloaders. The was reported to have dictated trade, with all gold required to be sent to him and chiefs that were found to keep some condemned to death, though it is unclear how dominant this monopoly was. There were reports of trading directly with villages, and chiefs had the right to one tusk from every elephant hunted in their territory. The exploitation of most accessible gold deposits meant that the amount of gold exported declined gradually from the mid- to late-18th century, while ivory exports remained high. The Rozvi imported dogs from the Tswana in the west. == Society and culture ==

Initiation ceremonies for boys and girls were held individually rather than in groups. Girls were prepared for marriage by a , an unmarried woman of the chief's patrilineal kin, usually the chief's sister who guarded the clan's charms. Rainmaking ceremonies were likely initially held at Khami because the Rozvi, as newcomers, did not have strong enough relations with the spirits of the land. Catrien Van Waarden wrote that after the final Torwa failed to bring rain, the Kalanga population likely embraced the closely-related Rozvi religion as a 'better' way to solicit rain. Mediumship among the Kalanga was replaced by possession, wherein a woman would be possessed by a 'wild lion spirit' and resolve domestic conflict while wearing a mane of imported beads and a special cloth. This subversion of ancestral spirit possession was possibly because the Rozvi could not use the Torwa . == Military ==

The Rozvi boasted a large, disciplined, and greatly-feared military which served to project power and maintain their supremacy on the Zimbabwean Plateau. It is unclear whether the Rozvi had a full-time standing army. The military was composed of regiments (), each led by a who answered to a general (), who in turn took instructions from Tumbare as the supreme . The was the commander-in-chief. The army was accompanied by women who carried supplies, collected water, and cooked for the soldiers, which allowed for longer campaigns. Soldiers also brought some food for themselves, such that the call to arms was "", meaning "Fill your bags with porridge". Both Rozvi and Kalanga traditions say that the 's military was empowered by war drums, which Ngomane (Chief Diviner) reinvigorated annually using captured children and young men from the 's subjects who were made into medicine (a metaphor for recruitment). In battle, the army were organised into a crescent or bullhorn formation where the main body () was flanked by two 'horns' (), with some following behind who saw to the wounded and distributed supplies to prevent a retreat. Soldiers were armed with bows and arrows, spears, shields, battle axes, daggers, and bludgeons. The Rozvi also had muskets and cannons, though the guns obtained from trade were often faulty and ineffective. Traditions say that Tumbare sounded the war drums after the fired a cannon as part of the call to arms. Accordingly, the drums were carried into battle and they were opened to release sacred bees or worms which stung and killed the enemy. This likely referred to poison arrows, with San arrow poison being made from a specific beetle's larvae ('worms'). Other tactics employed by the Rozvi included making fires whose smoke disorientated the enemy and whose embers burnt their feet, while another possible tactic was poisoning the enemy's food and water supply. ==List of rulers==

Names and dates taken from John Stewart's African States and Rulers (1989). • Changamire Dombo (16601695) • Changamire Zharare () • Changamire Negamo (–1710) • Chirisamuru (–1788) • Changamire Dhafa (–1824) • Changamire Baswi () • Changamire Chirisamuru II (–1836) • Changamire Tohwechipi Zharare (1838–1866) ==Notes==