Umayyad state of Córdoba

Background The Visigothic Kingdom had ruled Iberia for over two centuries when it was conquered by the Umayyad Caliphate. The Umayyads had previously conducted small raids on the southern tip of Iberia against the Visigoths, but full-scale conquest did not begin until April of 711. An army led by Tariq ibn Ziyad crossed into Southern Hispania from North Africa across the Strait of Gibraltar. After the crossing, Tariq's troops defeated Visigothic forces at the Battle of Guadalete. Roderic, the last king of the Visigoths, was killed, leaving an open path into Hispania. The Umayyads established the Iberian Peninsula as a province (wilāya) of their empire. The rulers of this province established their capital in Córdoba and received the administrative titles wāli or emīr. Emirate In 756, Abd al-Rahman I, a prince of the deposed Umayyad royal family, refused to recognize the authority of the Abbasid Caliphate and became an independent emir of Córdoba. He had been on the run for six years after the Umayyads had lost the position of caliph in Damascus in 750 to the Abbasids. Intent on regaining a position of power, he defeated the existing Muslim rulers of the area who had defied Umayyad and Abbasid rule. Abd al-Rahman I united various local fiefdoms into an independent emirate. The campaigns to unify al-Andalus went into Toledo, Zaragoza, Pamplona, and Barcelona and took over twenty-five years to complete. Despite the realm's independence from Baghdad, the emirate's rulers used the titles of emir or sultan until the mid-10th century and nominally recognized the suzerainty and legitimacy of the Abbasid Caliphs in Baghdad. For the next century and a half, his descendants continued to rule as the emirs of Córdoba, with nominal control over the rest of al-Andalus and sometimes parts of western Maghreb. Real control was always in question, particularly over the marches along the Christian border, where power depended on the competence of the individual emir. For example, the power of emir Abdullah ibn Muhammad al-Umawi () did not extend beyond Córdoba itself. Raids increased the emirate's territory, such as one to Corsica in 806. In 818, the inhabitants of the al-Rabad suburb of Córdoba rose against Al-Hakam I. After the revolt's suppression, the inhabitants were expelled. Some settled in Fez or Alexandria, while others formed the Emirate of Crete in the 820s. The founder Abd al-Rahman I had used Berbers and the saqaliba for a permanent army of 40,000 to end the conflicts that had plagued the emirate. In the time of Emir Al-Hakam I, a palatine guard of 3,000 riders and 2,000 infantry was manned by Slavic slaves. Under Emir Muhammad I, the army reached 35,000 to 40,000 combatants, half of them Syrian military contingents. An Umayyad expedition helmed by ʿIṣām al-Ḫawlānī conquered the Balearic Islands (the 'Eastern Islands') and incorporated them to Umayyad rule under emir Abdullah circa 902–903. Caliphate Abd al-Rahman III ascended to the throne in 912, and faced the Fatimid Caliphate, a rival North African Shiʿite Islamic empire based in Tunis. The Fatimid claim of caliph challenged the legitimacy of the Abbasids' religious authority. Abd al-Rahman III took the title of caliph in 929, challenging the Fatimids in their claim to religious authority. Internally, the Spanish Umayyads considered themselves as closer to Muhammad and more legitimate than the Abbasids, even though the Caliphate of Córdoba's legitimacy was not accepted outside of al-Andalus and its North African affiliates. Fatimid invasions were thwarted when Abd al-Rahman III secured Melilla in 927, Ceuta in 931, and Tangier in 951. In 948, the Idrisid emir Abul-Aish Ahmad recognized the caliphate, but refused to allow them to occupy Tangier. The Umayyads besieged Tangier in 949 and defeated Abul-Aish, forcing him to retreat, and then occupied the rest of northern Morocco. Abd al-Rahman III increased diplomatic relations with the Berber tribes in North Africa, Christian kingdoms from the north, West Francia, East Francia, and the Byzantine Empire. Abd al-Rahman III also brought the Christian kingdoms of the north under his direct influence through military force. The size of the Caliphal army under Abd al-Rahman III was between 30,000 and 50,000 troops. The caliphate became very profitable during the reign of Abd al-Rahman III, with public revenue up to 6,245,000 dinars, higher than previous administrations. Wealth was budgeted into three parts: the payment of the salaries and maintenance of the army, the preservation of public buildings, and the needs of the caliph. Almanzor continued the military reforms by Al-Hakam and his predecessors. He professionalized the regular army, which guaranteed his military power in the capital and ensured the availability of forces for numerous campaigns. Professionalization de-emphasized levies and other non-professional troops, which were replaced with taxes to support the professional troops (often saqaliba or Maghrebis) and freed Córdoban subjects from military service. Almanzor expanded recruitment of the saqaliba and Berbers. He also created new units, outside the regular army that were loyal to him and served to control the capital. ''. The chamberlain carried out wide-ranging military reforms. Almanzor abolished the system of tribal units with their own commanders. This system had been in decline due to a lack of Arab recruits and the pseudo-feudalistic institutions on the frontiers. A new system of mixed units without clear loyalty under orders from Administration officials replaced it. The increase in military forces and their partial professionalization led to an increase in financial expenses, and incentivized campaigning so troops could be paid with loot and land. Lands handed over to the soldiers were subject to tribute and ceased to operate under a system of border colonization. The nucleus of the new army was formed by Maghrebi Berber forces. Arabs, Berbers, and Slavs within the army were played off against one another by Almanzor to maintain his power and authority. The massive incorporation of North African horsemen relegated the infantry to sieges and fortress garrisons. This reform led to entire tribes, particularly Berber riders, being moved to the peninsula. At that time al-Andalus was known as Dar Jihad, or "country of jihad". It attracted many zealous volunteers, who made up a small but important portion of the total army. Almanzor's personal guard was made up of Christian mercenaries who also participated in his campaigns in Christian territories. Contemporary figures on the size of the army are contradictory. Some accounts claim that their armies numbered two hundred thousand horsemen and six hundred thousand foot soldiers, while others talk about twelve thousand horsemen, three thousand mounted Berbers and two thousand sūdān, African light infantry. Christian chroniclers record that "ordinarily the Saracen armies amount to 30, 40, 50 or 60,000 men, even when in serious occasions they reach 100, 160, 300 and even 600,000 fighters" in the time of Almanzor. In the campaign that swept Astorga and León, chroniclers record Almanzor leading 12,000 African horsemen, five thousand al-Andalusi horsemen, and 40,000 infantry. Stories of Almanzor's last campaign record forty-six thousand horsemen, six hundred forces guarding the train, 26,000 infantry, two hundred scouts or "police", and one hundred and thirty drummers. The garrison of Córdoba was recorded at 10,500 horsemen, while other forces guarded the northern border in dispersed detachments. Other modern studies found the army was between 50,000 and 90,000 under Almanzor. Scholars have argued Almanzor's armies could muster 600,000 laborers and 200,000 horses "drawn from all provinces of the empire". Évariste Lévi-Provençal argues the Almanzor's armies were between 35,000 and 70–75,000 soldiers. It is likely that the leader's armies may not have exceeded twenty thousand men. Until the eleventh century no Muslim army on campaign exceeded thirty thousand troops, while during the eighth century the trans-Pyrenean expeditions totaled ten thousand men and those carried out against Christians in the north of the peninsula were even smaller. The main weapon of the peninsular campaigns, which required speed and surprise, was the light cavalry. To try to counteract them, the Castilians created the role of "villain knights" by ennobling those free men who were willing to keep a horse to increase the mounted units through the Fuero de Castrojeriz of 974. For similar reasons, the Barcelonan count Borrell II created the figure of the homes of paratge who obtained privileged military status by fighting against the Córdobans armed on horseback – after losing their capital in the fall of 985. Military industry flourished in factories around Córdoba. The city was said to produce 1,000 bows and 20,000 arrows monthly, and 1,300 shields and 3,000 campaign stores annually. In contrast to the role the navy played under Abd al-Rahman III, under Almanzor, it served as a means of transporting ground troops, such as between the Maghreb and the Iberian Peninsula. This was also seen with Alcácer do Sal's ships in the campaign against Santiago de Compostela in 997. As in the army Almanzor recruited Berbers faithful to him. In its administration he favored the saqalibas to the detriment of native officials. The fleet was reinforced with a network of ports and a new base in the Atlantic, in Alcácer do Sal, which protected the city of Coimbra, recovered in the 980s. It served as start of a campaign against Santiago. On the Mediterranean shore, the naval defense was centered at the base of al-Mariya, now Almería. The dockyards of the fleet had been built in Tortosa in 944. The fleet of the Caliphate also maintained a significant budget under Almanzor. Initially, the maritime defense of the Caliphate was led by Abd al-Rahman ibn Muhammad ibn Rumahis, a veteran admiral who had served Al-Hakam II and was Qadi of Elvira and Pechina. He repulsed raids by al-Magus (idolaters) or al-Urdumaniyun ("men of the north", Vikings), in the west of al-Andalus in mid-971. When there was another invasion later that year, the Umayyad admiral left Almería and defeated them off the coast of Algarve. In April 973, he transported the army of Ghalib from Algeciras to subdue the rebellious tribes of the Maghreb and end Fatimid ambitions in that area. In 985, the fleet ravaged the Catalans. During the Catalan campaign, Gausfred I, Count of Empurias and Roussillon tried to raise an army to help but several flotillas of Berber pirates threatened their coasts, forcing them to stay to defend their lands. In 997 the al-Andalusi fleet hit the Galician coast. Almanzor eliminated figures who could have opposed his reforms, such as killing Ghalib. Almanzor also replaced the governor of Zaragoza after he collaborated with his eldest son to replace him with a member of the same clan, the Banu Tujib. The admiral of the fleet was also poisoned in January 980 and replaced. Land transport routes were dotted with strongholds, and dignitaries controlled communications. Messengers were bought in and specially trained to handle Almanzor's messages and to transmit the official reports that his foreign ministries wrote about the annual campaigns. Collapse The title of caliph became symbolic, without power or influence. Almanzor's temporal power increased the importance of the military, both as a symbol of the power of Almanzor and an instrument to guarantee the payment of taxes. The chamberlain's court also rivaled that of the caliph. Almanzor's reforms also divided the population into two unequal groups: a large mass of civilian taxpayers and a small professional military caste, generally from outside the peninsula and not particularally loyal to the polity. Following Almanzor's death in 1002, the institutions he created stagnated under internal divisions from military and political factions competing for power. The power of the chamberlain was retained by Almanzor's sons, Abd al-Malik al-Muzaffar, who died in 1008, and Abd al-Rahman Sanchuelo. While Abd al-Rahman was leading a raid on the Christian north, a revolt tore through Córdoba and deposed him, and he was killed when he tried to restore himself to power. The death of Abd al-Rahman Sanchuelo in 1009 marked the beginning of the Fitna of al-Andalus, with rival claimants proclaiming themselves to be the new caliph, violence sweeping the caliphate, and intermittent invasions by the Hammudid dynasty. Córdoban forces were also joined in the civil war by contingents of Christian mercenaries. Beset by factionalism, the caliphate crumbled in 1031 into a number of independent taifas, including the Taifa of Córdoba, Taifa of Seville and Taifa of Zaragoza. The last Córdoban Caliph was Hisham III, who reigned from 1027 to 1031. ==Society==

Under Umayyad rule, Arabization and Islamization progressed significantly in al-Andalus. In the long-term, these were to comprise the two major aspects of Andalusi identity and eventually characterized most of the population. Population estimates At the time of the Muslim invasion in the 8th century, Iberia had an estimated four million inhabitants. Other historians estimate higher at around seven or eight million. Around 1000 CE, the caliphate occupied some four hundred thousand square kilometers and, by one estimate, was populated by around three million people. At the same time, the Iberian Christian states comprised 160,000 square kilometers and around 500,000 people. Spanish historian estimated that in a pre-industrial society, for every million inhabitants, ten thousand soldiers could be mustered. Even assuming the chronicles exaggerated tenfold the real numbers – these speak of eight hundred thousand soldiers – the caliphate could have had eight million inhabitants. Those who use more bullish criteria estimate between seven and 10 million. The population of the capital city Córdoba most likely surpassed 100,000 in the 10th century, making it the largest city in Europe alongside Constantinople, capital of the Byzantine Empire. Tertius Chandler estimated that circa 1000 CE, Córdoba held around 450,000 people. Under Almanzor, the realm had other large cities like Toledo, Almería and Granada, which were all around 30,000; and Zaragoza, Valencia and Málaga, all above 15,000. This contrasted sharply with the Christian north of the Iberian Peninsula, which lacked large urban centers. Language The adoption of the Arabic language, though gradual, was a wide-reaching phenomenon of long-term importance. Arabic spread primarily through conversion to Islam. While Alvarus of Cordoba lamented in the 9th century that Christians were no longer using Latin, Richard Bulliet estimates that only 50% of the population of al-Andalus had converted to Islam by the death in 961 of Abd al-Rahman III, the last emir of the Umayyads in Cordoba. The Andalusis of Arab origin were a minority but they had formed the ruling elites since the Muslim conquest in the early 8th century. Berbers, who had made up the majority of the conquering army, were a larger group, relatively powerful but less so than the Arab elites. The indigenous population were the majority, but the proportion of Christians among them decreased over time as many of them converted to Islam. The indigenous Muslim converts were known as Muwallads () and became very numerous in later generations. While the indigenous Jews, Christians, and Muwallads were largely organized into family-based social structures, the Arabs and Berbers were organized into a more complex mix of family and tribe loyalties. The local Christian Catholic Church in al-Andalus was partially integrated with the Umayyad regime and its leaders collaborated with the Arab-Muslim elites. Bishops often acted as administrators and political envoys and their appointment was overseen by the Umayyad state. While the Catholic Church retained its internal unity, the advent of Islamic rule weakened its monopoly on religious authority over the Christian communities in al-Andalus, resulting in many deviations from orthodox practice and the emergence of both old and new heterodoxies which co-existed alongside official church doctrine. The term "Mozarabic" is also used to refer to the Andalusi dialect of Romance that was spoken by Christians in al-Andalus, to the Mozarabic liturgy that was a continuation of the Visigothic rite, and to Mozarabic art and architecture, a fusion of Christian and Islamic artistic and architectural styles brought by Christian emigrants from al-Andalus to northern Iberia. Not much is known about the Jewish communities in al-Andalus before the 10th century, though they must have been an important presence. Historical records attest that they were present in Córdoba in the 9th century. During the caliphal period, some Jews entered into the circles of the caliph's court, of whom the most influential was Hasdai ibn Shaprut. Conversion The Muslim proportion of al-Andalus's population grew during Umayyad rule as native Iberians converted to Islam. As in many other lands in the early Islamic era, conversion to Islam was likely motivated primarily by social and economic considerations. As the number of converts grew, the reasons to convert likely became stronger and the process became self-reinforcing. Indigenous elites had been among the first to convert as a way to preserve their status. As Christian institutions weakened and the Islamic presence became clearly more permanent, a steady drift towards Islam likely took place in the rest of the Christian population seeking improved social status and economic opportunities. Historical sources provide little data on which to estimate the rate of conversion, but a study by Richard Bulliet has put forward a possible model of this process. It suggests that by the beginning of the 9th century only some 8% of the indigenous population had converted but that the curve of conversion increased in the second half of the 9th century, resulting in about 25% conversion around the year 900, roughly 50% towards 950, and around 75% by 1000, after which conversion slowed. Half of the population in Córdoba is reported to have been Muslim by the 10th century, with an increase to 70 percent by the 11th century, though this was due less to local conversion than to Muslim immigration from the rest of the Iberian Peninsula and North Africa. Historical sources attest that slaves were commonly employed in wealthy households and especially at the royal court, but little is known of what role they may have played in industries such as agriculture and mining. Most slaves of this period were captured during Muslim raids on the Christian kingdoms in the northern Iberian Peninsula or were imported from other European markets. These European slaves were known as ṣaqāliba () and were highly valued. Some were castrated and sold as eunuchs, considered a very prized commodity. The latter were an integral part of Umayyad palace society and played an important role in courtly politics, including in the matter of dynastic succession, where they often allied with the women whose sons were potential candidates for the throne. All the mothers of Umayyad emirs and caliphs were also originally slaves. In the context of elite society, slave origins held no social stigma and women could become very powerful in the household and the court. Slave girls that were considered particularly prized or gifted were usually given an extensive education in arts and literature, as was also common in the court of the Abbasid caliphs. Black African slaves, known as , were also purchased and imported to al-Andalus, but they were less numerous than the and mostly trained to serve as military troops. ==Economy==

of Hisham II, dated 396 AH (1006–7 CE)|left The economy of al-Andalus had been monetized by the end of the 8th century, but it wasn't until the 10th century that both gold and silver coins were minted, thanks in large part to the flow of gold from trans-Saharan trade. Córdoba also drew revenues from tributes collected from the Christian kingdoms to the north, which provided silver and slaves. The agricultural revolution that occurred in al-Andalus following the arrival of the Arabs and Berbers was of major importance to both society and the economy. The combination of new crops; including rice, hard wheat, bananas, watermelons, oranges, and more; and new and more widespread irrigation techniques, including the use of norias (a type of waterwheel) meant that agricultural output was greater, more consistent, and took place during a longer part of the year. This ensured that the population was healthier and less vulnerable to famine, encouraging demographic growth, while farmers reaped higher incomes and were able to further diversify their production. Some crops, such as figs, were cultivated as cash crops. ==Culture==

In high society, both men and women were expected to learn adab, a kind of formal social etiquette common to al-Andalus and other Islamic societies at the time. Women, such as royal concubines, were sometimes sent abroad to be trained in adab and other forms of high culture. Al-Andalus was subject to eastern cultural influences, with Abd al-Rahman I likely having an interest in Syrian culture. During the reign of Abd al-Rahman II the culture of Baghdad became fashionable, and his reign is considered a high point of culture and patronage during the Emirate period. He also founded an academy for arts, music, and fashion which lasted for several generations. The legacy of Ziryab and figures like him was continued into the 9th century by bringing in new styles of art, music, and literature from the eastern Islamic world. Literature and scholarship Córdoba was the cultural and intellectual center of al-Andalus, with translations of ancient Greek texts into Arabic, Latin and Hebrew. The emir Abd al-Rahman II sent emissaries to the Abbasid and Byzantine courts to bring back books on subjects such as Islamic religious scholarship, Arabic grammar, poetry, astrology, medicine, and other sciences. Abbas ibn Firnas was among the most notable polymaths of this period who brought back technical and scientific knowledge back with him from the east. In the 10th century, Córdoba became one of the centers of culture and high society in the Islamic world. Al-Andalus's prosperity and the caliph's patronage attracted travelers, diplomats and scholars. Advances in science, history, geography, philosophy, and language also occurred during the Caliphate. During the reign of al-Hakam II, the royal library possessed an estimated 400,000 to 500,000 volumes. Under al-Hakam II, some female slaves could also receive an education in calligraphy, astronomy, medicine, or various other sciences. Arts In the 9th century, Abd al-Rahman II established a workshop that produced official embroidered textiles known as tiraz, a custom that also existed in the east. One of the most prolific types of marble craftsmanship were capitals, which continued the general configuration of Roman Corinthian capitals but were deeply carved with Islamic vegetal motifs (known as ataurique'' in Spanish) in a distinctive style associated with the caliphal period. Another notable example is a marble basin, now kept at the Dar Si Said Museum in Marrakesh, which was crafted at Madinat al-Zahra between 1002 and 1007 to serve as an ablutions basin and dedicated to 'Abd al-Malik, the son of al-Mansur, before being shipped to Morocco and re-used in new buildings. Ar-Ruṣāfa may have originally been a Roman villa or a Roman-Visigothic estate which was taken over and adapted by a Berber chieftain named Razin al-Burnusi who accompanied the original Muslim invasion by Tariq ibn Ziyad earlier that century. After a failed plot against him in 784, Abd al-Rahman I moved his residence definitively to the site of the Alcázar in the city. The palaces and the Great Mosque in Cordoba were linked via a high covered passage (sabbat) which was raised over the street between them, allowing the caliph direct access to the maqsurah area of the mosque via a corridor behind the qibla wall. The first sabbat was built by the Umayyad emir Abdallah () for security reasons and was later replaced by al-Hakam II when the latter expanded the mosque. The original Great Mosque of Seville, also known as the Ibn Addabas Mosque, was either built or enlarged by Abd al-Rahman II . It is now occupied by the Collegiate Church of the Divine Savior (Iglesia Colegial del Salvador), which preserves minor remains of the mosque. Construction began in 936–940 and continued in multiple phases throughout his reign and the reign of his son, Al-Hakam II (r. 961–976). The new city included ceremonial reception halls, a congregational mosque, administrative and government offices, aristocratic residences, gardens, a mint, workshops, barracks, service quarters, and baths. In the old Alcázar of Cordoba, modern excavations have also uncovered the remains of the Caliphal Baths dating from the 10th century (with later additions). -decorated mihrab (center) and the interlacing arches of the maqsura in the Great Mosque of Cordoba, in the extension added by al-Hakam II after 962 He also expanded the courtyard (sahn) of Córdoba's Great Mosque and built its first true minaret (a tower from which the call to prayer was issued). The minaret, with a square floor plan, set another precedent that was followed in the architecture of other mosques in the region. Abd ar Rahman III's cultured successor, al-Hakam II, further expanded the mosque's prayer hall, starting in 962. He endowed it with some of its most significant architectural flourishes and innovations, which included interlacing multifoil arches, decorative ribbed domes, and a richly-ornamented mihrab (niche symbolizing the direction of prayer) with Byzantine-influenced gold mosaics. Other monuments from the Caliphate period in al-Andalus include several of Toledo's old city gates, the former mosque (and later monastery) of Almonaster la Real, the Castle of Tarifa, the Castle of Baños de la Encina (near Seville), the Caliphal Baths of Córdoba, and, possibly, the Baths of Jaen. Early contributions to Moroccan architecture from this period include expansions to the Qarawiyyin and Andalusiyyin mosques in Fes and the addition of their square-shafted minarets, carried out under the sponsorship of Abd al-Rahman III and following the example of the minaret he built for the Great Mosque of Córdoba. ==List of rulers==

There were multiple pretenders after the fall of the caliphate. the Hammudid rulers of Málaga, Bobastro and Algeciras including continued to claim the title. The last pretender was Pseudo-Hisham, seated in Seville and installed by Abu al-Qasim Muhammad ibn Abbad, who died 1059. ==See also==