In the late 13th century, confederations of municipalities began to appear, aiming to support public safety and provide security from rampant
banditry. The first confederation was formed in 1298 by several municipalities, including
Poznań,
Pyzdry,
Gniezno, and
Kalisz in
Greater Poland. Confederations composed solely of
knights emerged in Poland during the second half of the 14th century, with the first such confederation being established in 1352. They were convened to defend the
nobles' liberties against central authority, the influence of the
clergy, and the development of
Hussitism. In 1307, in response to the formation of a confederation of nobles opposing the clergy's claims regarding
tithes and
jurisdiction, the clergy formed their own confederation. In the years 1382 and 1384, inter-estate confederations (
nobility and
burghers) were convened in
Radomsko to protect state security during the
interregnum. During interregnums, confederations—essentially vigilance committees—were formed to replace the inactive royal court, protect internal order, and defend the state from external threats. The confederations, as a
right of revolution, were recognized in
Polish law through the
Henrician articles (1573), part of the
pacta conventa sworn by every Polish king since 1576. They stated (in the
articulus de non praestanda oboedientia, a rule dating to 1501 from
Privilege of Mielnik) that if the monarch did not recognize or abused the rights and privileges of the nobility (szlachta), the nobles would no longer be bound to obey him and would have the legal right to disobey him. With the beginning of the 17th century, confederations became an increasingly significant element of the Commonwealth's political scene. In the 17th and 18th centuries, confederations were organized by
magnates, and were either pro- or anti-royal. A confederation not recognized by the king was considered a
rokosz ("rebellion"), although some of the rokosz would be eventually recognized by the king, who could even join them himself. Most pro-royal confederations were usually formed as a response to an anti-royal one, and some would take the form of an extraordinary session of the parliament (
sejm), as happened in 1710, 1717, and 1735. Confederations were usually formed in one part of the country and could expand into "general confederations" taking in most or all of the
voivodeships of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. However, even such general confederations would be formed separately for the
Crown of the Kingdom of Poland and the
Grand Duchy of Lithuania. Each confederation had a key document explaining its goals, known as the act of the confederation, which was deposited with the court (usually the local court for the region where the confederation was formed). Additional resolutions of the confederates, known as
sanctia, would also be deposited with the court. Membership of the confederation was voluntary and required an oath. The executive branch of a confederation was headed by a marshal, and a group of advisers, each known as
konsyliarz konfederacji. A marshal and associated konsyliarze were known as a generality (
generalność). A confederation would also have a larger council, similar to a parliament (
walna rada), which made decisions by majority vote. Until around the mid-18th century, resolutions of the council had to be
unanimous, but afterward, majority voting became more common. The chief military commanders of confederations were known as
regimentarze. Also in the 18th century an institution known as a "
confederated sejm" evolved. It was a parliament session (Sejm) that operated under the rules of a confederation. Its primary purpose was to avoid being subject to disruption by the
liberum veto, unlike the national Sejm, which was paralyzed by the veto during this period. On some occasions, a confederated sejm was formed from the whole membership of the national Sejm, so that the
liberum veto would not operate there. Confederations were proscribed by law in 1717, but continued to operate, indicating a weakness of the Commonwealth's central authority. They were also abolished by the
Constitution of May 3, 1791 (adopted by the
Four-Year Sejm of 1788–1792, itself a confederated sejm). But in practice this prohibition was not observed. The May 3rd Constitution was overthrown in mid-1792, by the
Targowica Confederation of Polish magnates backed by
Russian Empire and eventually joined, under extreme duress, by King
Stanisław II August. The ensuing Russian military intervention led (to the Confederates' surprise) to the
Second Partition of Poland in 1793. In 1812 the
General Confederation of the Kingdom of Poland was formed in
Warsaw to
Napoleon I's campaign against the
Russian Empire. ==List of confederations==