Summa Theologica

It was while teaching at the Santa Sabina studium provinciale—the forerunner of the Santa Maria sopra Minerva studium generale and College of Saint Thomas, which in the 20th century would become the Pontifical University of Saint Thomas Aquinas, Angelicum—that Aquinas began to compose the Summa. He completed the Prima Pars ('first part') in its entirety and circulated it in Italy before departing to take up his second regency as professor at the University of Paris (1269–1272). == Pedagogy ==

Aquinas conceived the Summa specifically as a work suited to beginning students: == Structure ==

The Summa is structured into: • 3 Parts ("Pt."), subdivided into: • 614 Questions (; or "QQ"), subdivided into: • 3,125 Articles ("Art."). Questions are specific topics of discussion, whereas their corresponding Articles are further-specified facets of the parent question. For example, Part I, Question 2 ("The Existence of God") is divided into three articles: (1) "Whether the existence of God is self-evident?"; (2) "Whether it can be demonstrated that God exists?"; and (3) "Whether God exists?" Additionally, questions on a broader theme are grouped into Treatises, though the category of treatise is reported differently, depending on the source. The Summa three parts have a few other major subdivisions. • First Part (; includes 119 QQ, 584 Articles): The existence and nature of God; the creation of the world; angels; and the nature of man. • Second Part (includes 303 QQ, 1536 Articles), subdivided into two sub-parts: :*First part of the Second Part ( or Part I-II; includes 114 QQ, 619 Articles): General principles of morality (including a theory of law). :* Second part of the Second Part ( or Part II-II; includes 189 QQ, 917 Articles): Morality in particular, including individual virtues and vices. • Third Part (Tertia Pars; includes 90 QQ, 549 Articles): The person and work of Christ, who is the way of man to God; and the sacraments. Aquinas left this part unfinished. :*Supplement (99 QQ, 446 Articles): The third part proper is attended by a posthumous supplement which concludes the third part and the Summa, treating of Christian eschatology, or "the last things". • Appendix I (includes 2 QQ, 8 Articles) and Appendix II (includes 1 Q, 2 Articles): Two very small appendices which discuss the subject of purgatory. Article format The method of exposition undertaken in the articles of the Summa is derived from Averroes, to whom Aquinas refers respectfully as "the Commentator". The standard format for articles of the Summa is as follows: • A series of objections () to the yet-to-be-stated conclusion are given. This conclusion can mostly (but not without exception) be extracted by setting the introduction to the first objection into the negative. • A short counter-statement is given, beginning with the phrase ('on the contrary...'). This statement almost always references authoritative literature, such as the Bible, Aristotle, or the Church Fathers. • The actual argument is made, beginning with the phrase ('I answer that...'). This is generally a clarification of the issue. • Individual replies to the preceding objections or the counter-statement are given, if necessary. These replies range from one sentence to several paragraphs in length. Example Consider the example of Part III, Question 40 ("Of Christ's Manner of Life"), Article 3 ("Whether Christ should have led a life of poverty in this world?"): • First, a series of objections to the conclusion are provided, followed by the extracted conclusion ('therefore'): • Objection 1: "Christ should have embraced the most eligible form of life...which is a mean between riches and poverty.... Therefore Christ should have led a life, not of poverty, but of moderation." • Objection 2: "Christ conformed His manner of life to those among whom He lived, in the matter of food and raiment. Therefore, it seems that He should have observed the ordinary manner of life as to riches and poverty, and have avoided extreme poverty." • Objection 3: "Christ specially invited men to imitate His example of humility.... But humility is most commendable in the rich.... Therefore it seems that Christ should not have chosen a life of poverty." • A counter-statement is given by referring to Matthew 8:20 and Matthew 17:26. • The actual argument is made: "it was fitting for Christ to lead a life of poverty in this world" for four distinct reasons. The article then expounds on these reasons in detail. • Aquinas' reply to the above objection is that "those who wish to live virtuously need to avoid abundance of riches and beggary...but voluntary poverty is not open to this danger: and such was the poverty chosen by Christ." Structure of Part II Part II of the Summa is divided into two parts (Prima Secundae and Secunda Secundae, cited respectively as "1a2æ" and "2a2æ"). The first part comprises 114 questions, while the second part comprises 189. The two parts of the second part are usually presented as containing several "treatises". The contents are as follows: Part II-I • Treatise on the last end (qq. 1–5): • Treatise on human acts (qq. 6–21) • The will in general (qq. 6–7) • The Will (qq. 8–17) • Good and evil (qq. 8–21) • Treatise on passions (qq. 22–48) • Passions in general (qq. 22–25) • Love and hatred (qq. 26–29) • Concupiscence and delight (qq. 30–34) • Pain and sorrow (qq. 35–39) • Fear and daring (qq. 40–45) • Anger (qq. 46–48) • Treatise on habits (qq. 49–70) • Habits in general; their causes and effects (qq. 49–54) • Virtues; intellectual and moral virtues (qq. 55–60) • Virtues; cardinal and theological virtues (qq. 61–67) • The gifts, beatitudes and blessings of the Holy Ghost (qq. 68–70) • Treatise on vice and sin (qq. 71–89) • Vice and sin in themselves; the comparison of sins (qq. 71–74) • The general causes of sin; the internal causes of sin (qq. 75–78) • The external causes of sin, such as the devil and man himself (qq. 79–84) • The corruption of nature the stain of sin; punishment for venial and mortal sin (qq. 85–89) • Treatise on law (qq. 90–108) • The essence of law; the various kinds of law; its effects (qq. 90–92) • Eternal law, natural law, human law (qq. 93–97) • The old law; ceremonial and judicial precepts (qq. 98–105) • The law of the Gospel or new law (qq. 106–108) • Treatise on grace (qq. 109–114): its necessity, essence, cause and effects Part II-II • Treatise on the theological virtues (qq. 1–46) • Treatise on the cardinal virtues (qq. 47–170) • Treatise on prudence (qq. 47–56) • Treatise on justice (qq. 57–122) • Treatise on fortitude and temperance (qq. 123–170) • Treatise on gratuitous graces (qq. 171–182) • Treatise on the states of life (qq. 183–189) == References within the Summa ==

The Summa makes many references to certain thinkers held in great respect in Aquinas's time. The arguments from authority, or sed contra arguments, are almost entirely based on citations from these authors. Some were called by special names: • The Apostle – Paul the Apostle: He wrote the majority of the New Testament canon after his conversion, earning him the title of The Apostle in Aquinas's Summa even though Paul was not among the original twelve followers of Jesus. • The Philosopher – Aristotle: He was considered the most astute philosopher, the one who had expressed the most truth up to that time. The main aim of the Scholastic theologians was to use his precise technical terms and logical system to investigate theology. • The Commentator – Averroes (Ibn Rushd): He was among the foremost commentators on Aristotle's works in Arabic, and his commentaries were often translated into Latin (along with Aristotle's text). • The Master – Peter Lombard: Writer of the dominant theological text for the time: the Sentences (commentaries on the writings of the Doctors of the Church). • The Jurist or The Legal Expert (iurisperitus) – Ulpian (a Roman jurist): the most-quoted contributor to the Pandects. • Tully – Marcus Tullius Cicero: famed Roman statesman and orator who was also responsible for bringing significant swathes of Greek philosophy to Latin-speaking audiences, though generally through summation and commentary in his own work rather than by translation. • Dionysius – Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite: Aquinas refers to the works of Dionysius, whom scholars of the time thought to be the person mentioned in Acts 17:34 (a disciple of St. Paul). These were most likely written in Syria during the 6th century by a writer who attributed his book to Dionysius (hence the addition of the prefix "pseudo-" to the name "Dionysius" in most modern references to these works). • Avicenna – Aquinas frequently cites this Persian polymath, the Aristotelian/Neoplatonic/Islamic philosopher Ibn Sina (Avicenna). • Al-Ghazel – Aquinas also cites the Islamic theologian al-Ghazali (Algazel). • Rabbi Moses – Rabbi Moses Maimonides: a Jewish rabbinical scholar, a near-contemporary of Aquinas (died 1204, before Aquinas). The scholastics derived many insights from his work, as he also employed the scholastic method. • Damascene – John of Damascus: Syrian Christian monk and priest. == Summary and key points ==

St. Thomas's greatest work was the Summa, and it is the fullest presentation of his views. He worked on it from the time of Clement IV (after 1265) until the end of his life. When he died, he had reached Question 90 of Part III (on the subject of penance). The structure of the work reflects this cyclic arrangement. It begins with God and his existence in Question 2. The entire first part of the Summa deals with God and his creation, which reaches its zenith in man. The First Part, therefore, ends with the treatise on man. The second part of the Summa deals with man's purpose (the meaning of life), which is happiness. The ethics detailed in this part are a summary of the ethics (Aristotelian in nature) that man must follow to reach his intended destiny. Since no man on his own can truly live the perfect ethical life (and therefore reach God), it was necessary that a perfect man bridge the gap between God and man. Thus God became man. The third part of the Summa, therefore, deals with the life of Christ. In order to follow the way prescribed by this perfect man, in order to live with God's grace (which is necessary for man's salvation), the Sacraments have been provided; the final part of the Summa considers the Sacraments. Part I: Theology The first part of the Summa is summed up in the premise that God governs the world as the "universal first cause". God sways the intellect; he gives the power to know and impresses the on the mind, and he sways the will in that he holds the good before it as aim, creating the . "To will is nothing else than a certain inclination toward the object of the volition which is the universal good." God works all in all, but so that things also themselves exert their proper efficiency. Here the Areopagitic ideas of the graduated effects of created things play their part in St. Thomas's thought. • When a man knows an effect and knows that it has a cause, the natural desire of the intellect or mind is to understand the essence of that thing. This understanding is necessary for the perfection of the intellect. • The existence of something and its essence are distinct (e.g., a mountain of solid gold would have essence, since it can be imagined, but not existence, since it is not in the world). More precisely, the being of something, and man's conception/imagination of such, are separate in all things—except for God, who is simple. • Human reasoning alone can prove: the existence of God; His total simplicity or lack of composition; his eternal nature (i.e., He exists outside of time, as time is held to be a part of God's created universe); His knowledge; the way His will operates; and His power. Although St. Thomas felt that human reason alone could prove that God created the universe, reason alone could not determine whether the universe was eternal or actually began at some point in time. Rather, only divine revelation from the Book of Genesis proves that. • All statements about God are either analogical or metaphorical: one cannot say man is "good" in exactly the same sense as God, but rather that he imitates in some way the simple nature of God in being good, just, or wise. • "Unbelief" is the worst sin in the realm of morals. • The principles of just war and natural law. • The greatest happiness of all, the ultimate good, consists in the beatific vision. • Collecting interest on loans is forbidden, because it is charging people twice for the same thing. • In and of itself, selling a thing for more or less than what it is worth is unlawful (the just price theory). • The contemplative life is greater than the active life. What is even greater is the contemplative life that takes action to call others to the contemplative life and give them the fruits of contemplation. (This actually was the lifestyle of the Dominican friars, of which St. Thomas was a member.) • Both monks and bishops are in a state of perfection. Being a monk is greater than being married and even greater (in many ways) than being a priest, but it is not as good as being a bishop. • Although the Jews delivered Christ to die, it was the gentiles who killed him, foreshadowing how salvation would begin with the Jews and spread to the Gentiles. • After the end of the world (in which all living material will be destroyed), the world will be composed of non-living matter (e.g. rocks), but it will be illuminated or enhanced in beauty by the fires of the apocalypse; a new heaven and earth will be established. • Martyrs, teachers of the faith (doctors), and virgins, in that order, receive special crowns in heaven for their achievements. • "The physicist proves the Earth to be round by one means, the astronomer by another: for the latter proves this by means of mathematics, e. g. by the shapes of eclipses, or something of the sort; while the former proves it by means of physics, e. g. by the movement of heavy bodies towards the center." • The Summa includes five arguments for the existence of God, which are known as the "five ways" (). The five ways occupy only one of the Summa 3,125 articles. ==Reception==

John XXII (died 1334), the pope who canonized Aquinas, said in Latin about his Summa Theologiae: "Quot articula, tot miracula" (which means "as many miracles as articles" – implying that every article is a miracle). Despite its size, the work circulated widely in manuscript form, and with the arrival of printing was printed relatively early, parts from the 1460s. ==Editions and translations==

Editions Incunabula (15th century) partial editions were printed as early as 1463; an edition of the first section of part 2 was printed by Peter Schöffer of Mainz in 1471. A full edition was printed by Michael Wenssler of Basel in 1485. From the 16th century, numerous commentaries on the Summa were published, notably by Peter Crockaert (d. 1514), Francisco de Vitoria and by Thomas Cajetan (1570). • 1663. Summa totius theologiae (Ordinis Praedicatorum ed.), edited by Gregorio Donati (d. 1642) • 1852–73. Parma edition. Opera Omnia, Parma: Fiaccadori. • 1871–82. Vivès edition. Opera Omnia, Paris: Vivès. • 1886. Editio altera romana, edited by Pope Leo XIII. Forzani, Rome. • 1888. Leonine Edition, edited by Roberto Busa with commentary by Thomas Cajetan. • 1964–80. Blackfriars edition (61 vols., Latin and English (English unreliable in some places) with commentary, notes, and introductions, volume 61 is the general index, London: Eyre & Spottiswoode (New York: McGraw-Hill. 2006. pbk) - excludes the posthumous supplement and the Appendix. Translations The most accessible English translation of the work is that originally published by Benziger Brothers, in five volumes, in 1911 (with a revised edition published in 1920). The translation is entirely the work of Laurence Shapcote (1864-1947), an English Dominican friar. Wanting to remain anonymous, he attributed the translation to the Fathers of the English Dominican Province. Father Shapcote also translated various of Aquinas's other works. • 1886–92. Die katholische Wahrheit oder die theologische Summa des Thomas von Aquin (in German), translated by C.M Schneider. Regensburg: G. J. Manz. • 1927–43. Theologische Summa (in Dutch), translated by Dominicanen Order. Antwerpen. English Translations • 1911. The Summa Theologiæ of St. Thomas Aquinas, translated by Fathers of the English Dominican Province. New York: Benziger Brothers. • 1920–22. The Summa Theologiæ of St. Thomas Aquinas (revised ed.). London: Benziger Brothers. (A literal and faithful translation) • 1947–48. (reissue, 3 vols.) New York: Benziger Brothers. - volume 3 contains the posthumous supplement, two appendices by brother Rainaldo da Piperno, and articles by others. • 1981. Westminster, MD: Christian Classics. • 1964–80. Blackfriars edition (61 vols., Latin and English with notes and introductions, volume 61 is the general index, London: Eyre & Spottiswoode, and New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company), paperback edition 2006 () - excludes the posthumous supplement and the Appendix. This is the longest and latest unabridged translation with commentary but the translation can be unreliable in some places • 1989. Summa Theologiae: A Concise Translation, T. McDermott. London: Eyre & Spottiswoode. (Abridged translation) == See also ==