Background Since the
Western Han dynasty (202 BC–9 AD), the non-Han peoples of the northern steppe and western highlands had been resettling into northern China. Along the frontiers in the north, the Chinese court employed a policy of recruiting surrendered tribes to serve as auxiliaries to defend against attacks from nomadic enemies. The
Wuhuan tribes submitted as Chinese tributaries in the northeast, and in 50 AD, the
Eastern Han dynasty (25–220) established the
Southern Xiongnu vassal state in northern
Bing province. In the northwest, western herders known as the
Qiang and
Di were brought in, predominantly to work as farmers and slaves in the
Guanzhong basin. As migrants, these people lived among the ethnic Han and were
sinicized to different degrees while retaining their tribal affiliations. However, they also faced discrimination and oppression, leading to racial tension and frequent rebellions. The
fall of Eastern Han (189–220) and the
Three Kingdoms period (220–280) brought the non-Han people closer to the Chinese heartlands. After revolting and murdering their pro-Han
chanyu in 189, the Southern Xiongnu tribes dissolved their government and dispersed throughout Bing province. Several frontier commanderies in Bing had to be abandoned, but the Chinese court retained the region corresponding with modern-day
Shanxi, where the remaining Xiongnu forces were reorganized into the Five Divisions near
Taiyuan. The Wuhuan also rebelled around this time but suffered defeat, with many of their people forcibly relocated and scattered in areas more south. The
Xianbei tribes of the steppe such as the
Murong and
Tuoba were drawn to the power vacuum left behind by the Wuhuan in the north and northeast, where they too became Chinese vassals. In the northwest, the population of the Qiang, Di and other non-Han groups continued to grow, supplemented by the arrival of the Xianbei. By the late 3rd-century, the population of the tribes in the Guanzhong and Shanxi had swelled, causing a few Chinese officials to advocate for their repatriation beyond the borderland. Despite efforts to appease and punish, disparity between the ethnic Han and tribes persisted into the
Western Jin period (266–316). The
War of the Eight Princes (291–306) during the reign of the
Emperor Hui of Jin severely weakened and divided imperial authority. Corruption was rampant among the Chinese elites and administrators, and popular rebellions against heavy taxation and repression erupted throughout the country. As the Jin princes exhausted the imperial army with their civil wars, they turned to the frontier auxiliaries as their source of military power, placing the tribes in prime position to exploit the chaos. The beginning of the Sixteen Kingdoms period is often considered to be 304 AD. That year, as part of a rebellion that began back in 301,
Li Xiong, a
Ba-Di chieftain and refugee from the Guanzhong, formally claimed the imperial title of King and formed his state of
Cheng-Han (304–347) in
Sichuan, notably becoming the only state among the Sixteen Kingdoms to be based in southwestern China. Most of the later states were also founded by non-Han leaders whose family had lived in China for generations or were in the process of
sinicization, and they are collectively known in historiography as the "
Five Barbarians".
Fall of Western Jin to the Han-Zhao (304–318) During the Jin civil wars,
Liu Yuan, a noble from the Five Divisions and a descendant of the
Southern Xiongnu chanyu, was serving as a general for one of the princes. The Five Divisions plotted to take advantage of the disorder by staging a revolt with Liu Yuan as their leader. After convincing his prince that he would rally his people to fight for his side, Liu Yuan was allowed to return home to
Shanxi, and upon his arrival, he rebelled and openly declared his intent to restore the fallen
Han dynasty. His regime, later renamed Zhao, is designated by historians as the
Han-Zhao (304–329). By the end of the War of the Eight Princes in 306, the Jin military in northern China had become severely weakened and ineffective in dealing with the various uprisings led by both the Han Chinese and the tribes. Many of these rebel groups, aggrieved by the civil wars and ongoing famines, flocked to join the Han-Zhao and soon encroached on the Chinese capital of
Luoyang. In 311, less than a year after the ascension of
Liu Cong to the Han throne, his forces annihilated the Jin imperial army and captured Luoyang along with
Emperor Huai in the
Disaster of Yongjia. In 316, the Western Jin came to an end after Liu Cong's cousin
Liu Yao seized
Chang'an and
Emperor Min, though pockets of Jin resistance continued to resist in the north. In the south, where the regions were mostly unaffected by the chaos in the north, the prince,
Sima Rui claimed the imperial title at
Jiankang, preserving the dynasty as the Eastern Jin (318–420).
Rise and fall of Later Zhao (318–351) statue created under the
Later Zhao during the reign of
Shi Hu in 338. It is the earliest known Buddha sculpture produced in China. After Liu Cong's death in 318, a failed coup was launch which saw his successor and most of the Han imperial family wiped out. The empire soon split between Liu Yao in the west and the powerful general,
Shi Le in the east. Shi Le was an ethnic
Jie of Southern Xiongnu descent in Bing province. He initially worked as an indentured farm laborer before joining Liu Yuan's rebellion, and during his stint as a Han general, he gained considerable power over the Hebei region, ruling in all but name. In 319, he founded the
Later Zhao (319–351), and after a decade-long confrontation, he decisively defeated
Liu Yao at the
Battle of Luoyang and destroyed the Han-Zhao in 329, placing most of northern China under his control. To consolidate his rule, Shi Le reinforced the dual-system of government introduced by the Han-Zhao to impose separate governance for the Chinese and non-Chinese. After he died, his adoptive brother,
Shi Hu seized the throne from his son in 334 and ruled the empire for the next 15 years. Shi Hu was described by records as a cruel and tyrannical ruler, especially towards the common Han Chinese people. On the other hand, he supported the proliferation of
Buddhism in the north. He employed the
Kuchean monk,
Fotu Cheng as one of his chief court advisors, allowing him to spread his teachings among the common people and build hundreds of monastries. Shi Hu maintained a stalemate with the Eastern Jin and other neighbouring states, unable to make significant gains from his military campaigns. After his death in 349, his family members engaged in a fratricidal succession for the throne, culminating in his adopted Han Chinese grandson,
Ran Min, seizing the government and carrying out a large-scale ethnic cleansing of the Jie people. The Later Zhao was soon destroyed by Ran Min in 351. During the fall of Western Jin, some Chinese officials opted to find refuge in the farthest reaches of northern China, which later remained largely independent from Later Zhao control. In
Gansu, the Chinese provincial inspector,
Zhang Gui and his family governed the region as early as 301 and continued to do so long after the Western Jin's demise. Though they outwardly remained loyal to the Eastern Jin and never claimed the imperial title (with the exception of
Zhang Zuo), their remoteness from the southern court allowed them to self-govern without much intervention, so historiography often refer to them as a sovereign regime known as the
Former Liang (301–376). The Former Liang preserved much of
Han literati culture in the north and expanded their influence into the
Western Regions. Around the
Liao river basin, the
Murong clan of
Xianbei ethnicity also professed their allegiance to the Eastern Jin, but internally vied for independence. The Murong allowed Chinese refugees to settle in their domain and employed them as officials to serve in their civil administration. In 337, while still claiming to be a vassal of Jin, their chieftain,
Murong Huang took the title of Prince and founded the
Former Yan (337–370). He conquered the rival
Duan and
Yuwen tribes as well as forced the
Goguryeo and
Buyeo into submission, thus allowing his state to compete with the Later Zhao. Other regimes that existed around this time but are not listed among the Sixteen Kingdoms are the
Tuoba-
Xianbei of
Dai and the
Di-led
Chouchi.
Former Qin and the brief unification of northern China (351–383) In the course of the Later Zhao collapse,
Ran Min formed his new state of
Ran Wei (350–352). However, many Zhao generals refused to acknowledge him, and northern China fragmented into numerous regions controlled by warlords. The Former Yan, under
Murong Jun, seized the moment to expand into the
Central Plains. In 352, his brother,
Murong Ke defeated and captured Ran Min at the
Battle of Liantai. Murong Jun thereupon broke away from the Eastern Jin and proclaimed himself as emperor. The Yan continued their southward expansion, reaching all the way to the
Huai river and establishing dominance over the northeast. After Murong Jun's death in 360, Murong Ke acted as regent for his child heir and maintained the Yan's military supremacy through his competent leadership. However, when he too died in 367, the issues of unbridled corruption among the aristorcracy and infighting within the imperial family became evident and rapidly worsened. Among the states that emerged from the chaos was the
Former Qin (351–394), established by the Later Zhao general,
Fu Jiàn of
Di ethnicity who captured and secured control over the
Guanzhong region. In 357, his nephew
Fu Jiān seized the throne from his despotic son in a coup. Despite his ethnicity, the younger Fu Jiān revered
Confucianism and entrusted most of state affairs to his ethnic Chinese advisor,
Wang Meng. The two enacted policies to help the Qin recover from the early wars and famines, while also effectively putting down rebellions and corruption throughout their domain. Within a decade, the Former Qin was transformed into a regional power in the northwest, competing with both the Former Yan and Eastern Jin. In 370, Wang Meng led the Former Qin to invade the Former Yan, and though outnumbered, he was able to vanquish them in one fell swoop. Riding on his momentum, Fu Jiān unified northern China by subjugating the Chouchi, Former Liang and Dai while also capturing
Sichuan from the Eastern Jin by 376. Fu Jiān had a tendency to spare and recruit his enemies, employing many of them in his government and military. With most of China under his rule, he wanted to complete the unification by ending the Eastern Jin once and for all. Wang Meng opposed this move, and before his death in 375, he warned Fu Jiān that he first needed to address the growing issues between the different ethnic groups in his domain, but Fu Jiān did not heed his advice. In 383, he launched an invasion of southern China, where his vast army was defeated in a devastating rout at the
Battle of Fei River by a significantly smaller Eastern Jin force. poet,
Su Hui with her
palindrome poem, the
Star Gauge (璇璣圖). Few poems from the Sixteen Kingdoms survived, and the
Star Gauge is unique as it consists of 29 by 29 grid of characters which can be read in roughly 3,000 different ways.
Fragmentation after the Battle of Feishui (383–394) After the Battle of Feishui, the power of the Former Qin quickly unraveled as various regimes in the north broke loose. In 384, Fu Jiān's general and a prince of the fallen Former Yan,
Murong Chui rebelled in the
Hebei and founded the
Later Yan (384–409), intending to restore his family's empire. His relatives responded by forming the
Western Yan (384–394; not listed among the Sixteen Kingdom) and laid siege on Fu Jiān at his capital in
Chang'an. During the war, Fu Jiān's general of
Qiang ethnicity,
Yao Chang also rebelled and established the
Later Qin (384–417). In 385, the Western Yan ousted Fu Jiān from Chang'an, and he was soon captured and executed by Yao Chang. More states began to spring up in light of Fu Jiān's death. That same year, the Xianbei former vassal,
Qifu Guoren founded the
Western Qin (385–431) in eastern Gansu and the Chouchi was restored. In 386, the Di general,
Lü Guang established the
Later Liang (386–403) in western Gansu while another Xianbei leader,
Tuoba Gui revived the Dai as the
Northern Wei (386–535; not listed among the Sixteen Kingdoms). During the Later Yan's conquest of the northeast, the
Dingling troops under Murong Chui mutinied, and in 388, they formed their state of
Zhai Wei (388–392; not listed among the Sixteen Kingdoms).
Later Qin and the propagation of Buddhism (394–417) sculptures at
Maijishan Grottoes, a series of
Buddhist rock-cut caves in
Tianshui,
Gansu. Construction of the grottoes began during the
Later Qin period and was expanded by later dynasties such as the
Western Qin and
Northern Wei. For the next decade, Yao Chang fought against remnants of the Former Qin for supremacy over the Guanzhong. In 394, he was succeeded by his son,
Yao Xing, who shortly after crushed the last remaining power of the Former Qin. He then ushered the Later Qin into a period of relative peace and prosperity. During his reign, the Later Qin received the nominal submissions of several neighbouring states such as the Later Liang and Western Qin and conquered the
Henan region from the Eastern Jin, including the city of
Luoyang. Much like Fu Jiān, Yao Xing strongly adhered to
Confucian principles. He turned
Chang'an into an education hub by establishing schools and attracting many prospective scholars near and far. He was also a devout follower of
Buddhism and actively spread the religion through widespread state support. In 401, after defeating the Later Liang into submission, he welcomed into his court the
Kuchean monk,
Kumārajīva and sponsored him to translate many Buddhist
sutras, treatises and other texts from
Sanskrit to Chinese.
Mahayana Buddhism flourished under Yao Xing, with most of the Later Qin population following the teachings of the
Buddha. North of the Later Qin heartlands was the
Ordos Plateau, which had long been home to various roaming tribes. These tribes, under constant threat by the
Northern Wei in the east, submitted to the Qin and acted as a buffer on their northern frontier. As the raids on these tribes intensified, the Later Qin carried out a retaliatory campaign against the Northern Wei, but suffered a decisive defeat at the
Battle of Chaibi in 402. From there, the empire stagnated, and as the Qin entered peace talks with the Wei,
Helian Bobo of the
Tiefu tribe rebelled in the Ordos and founded the
Helian Xia (407–431), beginning a protracted war that drained the Qin's power and resources. Yao Xing soon lost control over his other vassals, and when he died in 416, he left his heir contending with his relatives over the throne. In 417, the Eastern Jin commander,
Liu Yu took advantage of the tumultuous situation to conquer the Later Qin.
Gansu: The Four Liangs and Western Qin In the
Gansu, the
Later Liang came to blows with the
Western Qin. Though they gained the upper hand early on, the Liang was badly routed and suffered heavy losses during their invasion of Qin in 397. The defeat sparked upheaval in Later Liang, as soon after, the Xianbei chieftain,
Tufa Wugu broke away and founded the
Southern Liang (397–414), followed by the Chinese governor,
Duan Ye, who established the
Northern Liang (397–439) with the support of the
Lushuihu chieftain,
Juqu Mengxun. In 400, the Chinese general,
Li Gao rebelled against the Northern Liang and formed the
Western Liang (400–421). The next year, Juqu Mengxun deposed Duan Ye and took over the Northern Liang. Between 400 and 401, the Later Qin carried out two western expeditions to Gansu, annexing the Western Qin and forcing the four Liangs into nominal submission. Unable to withstand anymore attacks, the Later Liang gave up their remaining territory to the Later Qin in 403. As the Later Qin weakened, the Southern Liang broke off relations in 407 while the Western Qin reestablished themselves in 409. The Southern Liang suffered heavy losses on the battlefield and fell to the Western Qin in 414. In 421, Juqu Mengxun pacified the Western Liang, leaving Northern Liang and Western Qin to compete for Gansu. Due to internal and external pressure, the Western Qin declined and were subjugated by the Helian Xia in 431, giving the Northern Liang sole control over Gansu for a brief period of time.
Northern Wei and the reunification of northern China (394–439) Division of Later Yan In the northeast, Murong Chui spent the majority of his reign waging war and quelling rebellions to recover his family's holdings in the northeast. He extinguished the Zhai Wei in 392 and conquered the Western Yan in 394. Yet, his former ally, the Northern Wei under Tuoba Gui remained a nuisance to his empire. In 395, he sent his sons to lead a punitive expedition against the Northern Wei, but Tuoba Gui dealt them a grave defeat at the
Battle of Canhe Slope. In 396, Murong Chui personally led another campaign to Northern Wei in retribution, but died of illness along the way. Not long after Murong Chui's heir took the throne, Tuoba Gui launched his own invasion of Later Yan. The Murong clan decided to concentrate their forces to their major cities, which allowed the Northern Wei to overrun the Central Plains. Though Tuoba Gui initially struggled to take their cities, he eventually won a decisive victory over the main Later Yan forces at the
Battle of Baisi. The Murong family fell into infighting; the emperor decided to evacuate the
Central Plains for his ancestral home in Liaodong, while an offshoot led by his uncle,
Murong De founded the
Southern Yan (398–410) and occupied the
Shandong region. Following a coup, the Later Yan branch was later replaced by the
Northern Yan (407–436), whose founder,
Gao Yun was of
Goguryeo descent, but his successor,
Feng Ba, was a
Han Chinese.
Reunification of Emperor Taiwu cheng, the capital of the
Helian Xia built in the early 5th century by
Tiefu chieftain
Helian Bobo in modern-day
Jingbian, in northern
Shaanxi province, near the border with
Inner Mongolia. The city was captured by the
Northern Wei in 427.|left With the Yan divided and a foothold on the Central Plains, the Northern Wei became the new regional power in the northeast. After Tuoba Gui's assassination in 409, his son, Tuoba Si, posthumously known as
Emperor Mingyuan, succeeded him and prioritized in stabilizing the state over expanding. In the northwest, shortly after the Eastern Jin destroyed Later Qin, Helian Bobo took the opportunity to seize the Guanzhong region as Liu Yu returned to the south in 418. In 423,
Emperor Taiwu of Northern Wei ascended the throne with ambitions to unify northern China. Following the death of Helian Bobo in 425, he intensified his assault on the Helian Xia that by 428, he had captured both the Xia capital,
Tongwancheng and their emperor. The emperor's brother,
Helian Ding succeeded him and continued to resist. He made a last-ditch effort to save the empire by expanding westward, even conquering the weakened Western Qin in 431. However, as he attempted to invade the Northern Liang later that year, he was captured in a raid by the
Tuyuhun nomads of modern
Qinghai and sent to the Northern Wei as a prisoner. With the defeat of their last major rival in northern China, reunification under the Northern Wei was inevitable. Emperor Taiwu turned his focus to the Northern Yan in 432, launching incessant attacks on their border. Eventually, in 436, the Northern Yan ruler was unable to resist a large-scale invasion by the Northern Wei and fled his territory for Goguryeo. The Northern Liang became the last of the Sixteen Kingdoms. Despite a marriage alliance between the two sides, Emperor Taiwu accused the Northern Liang of plotting rebellion and sent an expeditionary force into Gansu in 439. Placed under siege, the last ruler of Northern Liang soon surrendered. The Sixteen Kingdoms era came to an end, as the Northern Wei unification would last for nearly a century. == Relations with Eastern Jin ==