Permafrost

keeps the lowest layer above freezing. The vertical line denotes the average annual temperature that is crucial for the upper and lower limit of the permafrost zone, while the red lines represent seasonal temperature changes and seasonal temperature extremes. Solid curved lines at the top show seasonal maximum and minimum temperatures in the active layer, while the red dotted-to-solid line depicts the average temperature profile with depth of soil in a permafrost region. Permafrost is soil, rock or sediment that is frozen for more than two consecutive years. In practice, this means that permafrost occurs at a mean annual temperature of or below. In the coldest regions, the depth of continuous permafrost can exceed . as of 2018, the average thickness in the Northern Hemisphere is ~, but there are significant regional differences. Northeastern Siberia, Alaska and Greenland have the most solid permafrost with the lowest extent of active layer (less than on average, and sometimes only ), while southern Norway and the Mongolian Plateau are the only areas where the average active layer is deeper than , with the record of . The border between active layer and permafrost itself is sometimes called permafrost table. Most of this area is found in Siberia, northern Canada, Alaska and Greenland. Beneath the active layer annual temperature swings of permafrost become smaller with depth. The greatest depth of permafrost occurs right before the point where geothermal heat maintains a temperature above freezing. Above that bottom limit there may be permafrost with a consistent annual temperature—"isothermal permafrost". Continuity of coverage Permafrost typically forms in any climate where the mean annual air temperature is lower than the freezing point of water. Exceptions are found in humid boreal forests, such as in Northern Scandinavia and the North-Eastern part of European Russia west of the Urals, where snow acts as an insulating blanket. Glaciated areas may also be exceptions. Since all glaciers are warmed at their base by geothermal heat, temperate glaciers, which are near the pressure melting point throughout, may have liquid water at the interface with the ground and are therefore free of underlying permafrost. "Fossil" cold anomalies in the geothermal gradient in areas where deep permafrost developed during the Pleistocene persist down to several hundred metres. This is evident from temperature measurements in boreholes in North America and Europe. Discontinuous permafrost in Alaska. The below-ground temperature varies less from season to season than the air temperature, with mean annual temperatures tending to increase with depth due to the geothermal crustal gradient. Thus, if the mean annual air temperature is only slightly below , permafrost will form only in spots that are sheltered (usually with a northern or southern aspect, in the north and south hemispheres respectively) creating discontinuous permafrost. Usually, permafrost will remain discontinuous in a climate where the mean annual soil surface temperature is between . In the moist-wintered areas mentioned before, there may not even be discontinuous permafrost down to . Discontinuous permafrost is often further divided into extensive discontinuous permafrost, where permafrost covers between 50 and 90 percent of the landscape and is usually found in areas with mean annual temperatures between , and sporadic permafrost, where permafrost cover is less than 50 percent of the landscape and typically occurs at mean annual temperatures between . In soil science, the sporadic permafrost zone is abbreviated SPZ and the extensive discontinuous permafrost zone DPZ. Exceptions occur in un-glaciated Siberia and Alaska where the present depth of permafrost is a relic of climatic conditions during glacial ages where winters were up to colder than those of today. Continuous permafrost At mean annual soil surface temperatures below the influence of aspect can never be sufficient to thaw permafrost and a zone of continuous permafrost (abbreviated to CPZ) forms. A line of continuous permafrost in the Northern Hemisphere represents the most southern border where land is covered by continuous permafrost or glacial ice. The line of continuous permafrost varies around the world northward or southward due to regional climatic changes. In the Southern Hemisphere, most of the equivalent line would fall within the Southern Ocean if there were land there. Most of the Antarctic continent is overlain by glaciers, under which much of the terrain is subject to basal melting. The exposed land of Antarctica is substantially underlain with permafrost, some of which is subject to warming and thawing along the coastline. Alpine permafrost A range of elevations in both the Northern and Southern Hemisphere are cold enough to support perennially frozen ground: some of the best-known examples include the Canadian Rockies, the European Alps, Himalaya and the Tien Shan. In general, it has been found that extensive alpine permafrost requires mean annual air temperature of , though this can vary depending on local topography, and some mountain areas are known to support permafrost at . It is also possible for subsurface alpine permafrost to be covered by warmer, vegetation-supporting soil. Alpine permafrost is particularly difficult to study, and systematic research efforts did not begin until the 1970s. In 2014, a collection of regional estimates of alpine permafrost extent had established a global extent of . However, by 2014, alpine permafrost in the Andes had not been fully mapped, although its extent has been modeled to assess the amount of water bound up in these areas. Subsea permafrost , when a larger portion of Earth's water was bound up in ice sheets on land and when sea levels were low. As the ice sheets melted to again become seawater during the Holocene glacial retreat, coastal permafrost became submerged shelves under relatively warm and salty boundary conditions, compared to surface permafrost. Since then, these conditions led to the gradual and ongoing decline of subsea permafrost extent. Subsea permafrost can also overlay deposits of methane clathrate, which were once speculated to be a major climate tipping point in what was known as a clathrate gun hypothesis, but are now no longer believed to play any role in projected climate change. Past extent of permafrost At the Last Glacial Maximum, continuous permafrost covered a much greater area than it does today, covering all of ice-free Europe south to about Szeged (southeastern Hungary) and the Sea of Azov (then dry land) and East Asia south to present-day Changchun and Abashiri. In North America, only an extremely narrow belt of permafrost existed south of the ice sheet at about the latitude of New Jersey through southern Iowa and northern Missouri, but permafrost was more extensive in the drier western regions where it extended to the southern border of Idaho and Oregon. In the Southern Hemisphere, there is some evidence for former permafrost from this period in central Otago and Argentine Patagonia, but was probably discontinuous, and is related to the tundra. Alpine permafrost also occurred in the Drakensberg during glacial maxima above about . == Manifestations ==

Base depth Permafrost extends to a base depth where geothermal heat from the Earth and the mean annual temperature at the surface achieve an equilibrium temperature of . This base depth of permafrost can vary wildly – it is less than a meter (3 ft) in the areas where it is shallowest, Calculations indicate that the formation time of permafrost greatly slows past the first several metres. For instance, over half a million years was required to form the deep permafrost underlying Prudhoe Bay, Alaska, a time period extending over several glacial and interglacial cycles of the Pleistocene. Base depth is affected by the underlying geology, and particularly by thermal conductivity, which is lower for permafrost in soil than in bedrock. Away from tectonic plate boundaries, this is equivalent to an average heat flow of 25–30 °C/km (124–139 °F/mi) near the surface. Massive ground ice , Canada First recorded North American observations of this phenomenon were by European scientists at Canning River (Alaska) in 1919. Russian literature provides an earlier date of 1735 and 1739 during the Great North Expedition by P. Lassinius and Khariton Laptev, respectively. Russian investigators including I. A. Lopatin, B. Khegbomov, S. Taber and G. Beskow had also formulated the original theories for ice inclusion in freezing soils. While there are four categories of ice in permafrost – pore ice, ice wedges (also known as vein ice), buried surface ice and intrasedimental (sometimes also called constitutional These two types usually occur separately, but may be found together, like on the coast of Tuktoyaktuk in western Arctic Canada, where the remains of Laurentide Ice Sheet are located. Buried surface ice may derive from snow, frozen lake or sea ice, aufeis (stranded river ice) and even buried glacial ice from the former Pleistocene ice sheets. The latter hold enormous value for paleoglaciological research, yet even as of 2022, the total extent and volume of such buried ancient ice is unknown. Notable sites with known ancient ice deposits include Yenisei River valley in Siberia, Russia as well as Banks and Bylot Island in Canada's Nunavut and Northwest Territories. Some of the buried ice sheet remnants are known to host thermokarst lakes. In ice-rich permafrost areas, melting of ground ice initiates thermokarst landforms such as thermokarst lakes, thaw slumps, thermal-erosion gullies, and active layer detachments. Notably, unusually deep permafrost in Arctic moorlands and bogs often attracts meltwater in warmer seasons, which pools and freezes to form ice lenses, and the surrounding ground begins to jut outward at a slope. This can eventually result in the formation of large-scale land forms around this core of permafrost, such as palsas – long (), wide () yet shallow ( File:Palsaaerialview.jpg|A group of palsas, as seen from above, formed by the growth of ice lenses. File:Injection ice in a pingo.jpg|Injection ice in a pingo, Mackenzie delta area. File:Pingos near Tuk.jpg|Pingos near Tuktoyaktuk, Northwest Territories, Canada File:Permafrost - polygon.jpg|Ground polygons File:Permafrost stone-rings hg.jpg|Stone rings on Spitsbergen File:Polygons in Padjelanta.jpg|Helicopter view of ground polygons and ice lenses at Padjelanta National Park, Sweden File:Ice-wedge hg.jpg|Ice wedges seen from top File:Permafrost soil-flow hg.jpg|Solifluction on Svalbard File:Permafrost pattern.jpg|Contraction crack (ice wedge) polygons on Arctic sediment. Ecology , Northwest Territories. Only plants with shallow roots can survive in the presence of permafrost. Black spruce tolerates limited rooting zones, and dominates flora where permafrost is extensive. Likewise, animal species which live in dens and burrows have their habitat constrained by the permafrost, and these constraints also have a secondary impact on interactions between species within the ecosystem. permafrost bog in Sweden While permafrost soil is frozen, it is not completely inhospitable to microorganisms, though their numbers can vary widely, typically from 1 to 1000 million per gram of soil. The permafrost carbon cycle (Arctic Carbon Cycle) deals with the transfer of carbon from permafrost soils to terrestrial vegetation and microbes, to the atmosphere, back to vegetation, and finally back to permafrost soils through burial and sedimentation due to cryogenic processes. Some of this carbon is transferred to the ocean and other portions of the globe through the global carbon cycle. The cycle includes the exchange of carbon dioxide and methane between terrestrial components and the atmosphere, as well as the transfer of carbon between land and water as methane, dissolved organic carbon, dissolved inorganic carbon, particulate inorganic carbon and particulate organic carbon. Most of the bacteria and fungi found in permafrost cannot be cultured in the laboratory, but the identity of the microorganisms can be revealed by DNA-based techniques. For instance, analysis of 16S rRNA genes from late Pleistocene permafrost samples in eastern Siberia's Kolyma Lowland revealed eight phylotypes, which belonged to the phyla Actinomycetota and Pseudomonadota. "Muot-da-Barba-Peider", an alpine permafrost site in eastern Switzerland, was found to host a diverse microbial community in 2016. Prominent bacteria groups included phylum Acidobacteriota, Actinomycetota, AD3, Bacteroidota, Chloroflexota, Gemmatimonadota, OD1, Nitrospirota, Planctomycetota, Pseudomonadota, and Verrucomicrobiota, in addition to eukaryotic fungi like Ascomycota, Basidiomycota, and Zygomycota. In the presently living species, scientists observed a variety of adaptations for sub-zero conditions, including reduced and anaerobic metabolic processes. Construction on permafrost There are only two large cities in the world built in areas of continuous permafrost (where the frozen soil forms an unbroken, below-zero sheet) and both are in Russia – Norilsk in Krasnoyarsk Krai and Yakutsk in the Sakha Republic. Building on permafrost is difficult because the heat of the building (or pipeline) can spread to the soil, thawing it. As ice content turns to water, the ground's ability to provide structural support is weakened, until the building is destabilized. For instance, during the construction of the Trans-Siberian Railway, a steam engine factory complex built in 1901 began to crumble within a month of operations for these reasons. However, warming-induced change of friction on the piles can still cause movement through creep, even as the soil remains frozen. The Melnikov Permafrost Institute in Yakutsk found that pile foundations should extend down to to avoid the risk of buildings sinking. At this depth the temperature does not change with the seasons, remaining at about . Two other approaches are building on an extensive gravel pad (usually thick); or using anhydrous ammonia heat pipes. The Trans-Alaska Pipeline System uses heat pipes built into vertical supports to prevent the pipeline from sinking and the Qingzang railway in Tibet employs a variety of methods to keep the ground cool, both in areas with frost-susceptible soil. Permafrost may necessitate special enclosures for buried utilities, called "utilidors". File:PICT4417Sykhus.JPG|A building on elevated piles in permafrost zone. File:Trans-Alaska Pipeline (1).jpg|Heat pipes in vertical supports maintain a frozen bulb around portions of the Trans-Alaska Pipeline that are at risk of thawing. File:Yakoutsk Construction d'immeuble.jpg|Pile foundations in Yakutsk, a city underlain with continuous permafrost. File:Raised pipes in permafrost.jpg|District heating pipes run above ground in Yakutsk. == Impacts of climate change ==

in 2013. Increasing active layer thickness Globally, permafrost warmed by about between 2007 and 2016, with stronger warming observed in the continuous permafrost zone relative to the discontinuous zone. Observed warming was up to in parts of Northern Alaska (early 1980s to mid-2000s) and up to in parts of the Russian European North (1970–2020). This warming inevitably causes permafrost to thaw: active layer thickness has increased in the European and Russian Arctic across the 21st century and at high elevation areas in Europe and Asia since the 1990s. Between 2000 and 2018, the average active layer thickness had increased from ~ to ~, at an average annual rate of ~. Climate change feedback As recent warming deepens the active layer subject to permafrost thaw, this exposes formerly stored carbon to biogenic processes which facilitate its entrance into the atmosphere as carbon dioxide and methane. Permafrost thaw is sometimes included as one of the major tipping points in the climate system due to the exhibition of local thresholds and its effective irreversibility. However, while there are self-perpetuating processes that apply on the local or regional scale, it is debated as to whether it meets the strict definition of a global tipping point as in aggregate permafrost thaw is gradual with warming. In the northern circumpolar region, permafrost contains organic matter equivalent to 1400–1650 billion tons of pure carbon, which was built up over thousands of years. This amount equals almost half of all organic material in all soils, Further, most of this carbon (~1,035 billion tons) is stored in what is defined as the near-surface permafrost, no deeper than below the surface. In general, the volume of permafrost in the upper 3 m of ground is expected to decrease by about 25% per of global warming, about 5% to 15% of permafrost carbon is expected to be lost "over decades and centuries". Notably, estimates of carbon release alone do not fully represent the impact of permafrost thaw on climate change. This is because carbon can be released through either aerobic or anaerobic respiration, which results in carbon dioxide (CO2) or methane (CH4) emissions, respectively. While methane lasts less than 12 years in the atmosphere, its global warming potential is around 80 times larger than that of CO2 over a 20-year period and about 28 times larger over a 100-year period. While only a small fraction of permafrost carbon will enter the atmosphere as methane, those emissions will cause 40–70% of the total warming caused by permafrost thaw during the 21st century. Much of the uncertainty about the eventual extent of permafrost methane emissions is caused by the difficulty of accounting for the recently discovered abrupt thaw processes, which often increase the fraction of methane emitted over carbon dioxide in comparison to the usual gradual thaw processes. Another factor which complicates projections of permafrost carbon emissions is the ongoing "greening" of the Arctic. As climate change warms the air and the soil, the region becomes more hospitable to plants, including larger shrubs and trees which could not survive there before. Thus, the Arctic is losing more and more of its tundra biomes, yet it gains more plants, which proceed to absorb more carbon. Some of the emissions caused by permafrost thaw will be offset by this increased plant growth, but the exact proportion is uncertain. It is considered very unlikely that this greening could offset all of the emissions from permafrost thaw during the 21st century, and even less likely that it could continue to keep pace with those emissions after the 21st century. Impact on global temperatures s from permafrost thaw during the 21st century, which show a limited, moderate and intense and emission response to low, medium and high-emission Representative Concentration Pathways. The vertical bar uses emissions of selected large countries as a comparison: the right-hand side of the scale shows their cumulative emissions since the start of the Industrial Revolution, while the left-hand side shows each country's cumulative emissions for the rest of the 21st century if they remained unchanged from their 2019 levels. while a 2022 review concluded that every of global warming would cause and from abrupt thaw by the year 2100 and 2300. Around of global warming, abrupt (around 50 years) and widespread collapse of permafrost areas could occur, resulting in an additional warming of . Thaw-induced ground instability on the Arctic Ocean coast of Alaska. As the water drains or evaporates, soil structure weakens and sometimes becomes viscous until it regains strength with decreasing moisture content. One visible sign of permafrost degradation is the random displacement of trees from their vertical orientation in permafrost areas. Global warming has been increasing permafrost slope disturbances and sediment supplies to fluvial systems, resulting in exceptional increases in river sediment. On the other hands, disturbance of formerly hard soil increases drainage of water reservoirs in northern wetlands. This can dry them out and compromise the survival of plants and animals used to the wetland ecosystem. In high mountains, much of the structural stability can be attributed to glaciers and permafrost. As climate warms, permafrost thaws, decreasing slope stability and increasing stress through buildup of pore-water pressure, which may ultimately lead to slope failure and rockfalls. Over the past century, an increasing number of alpine rock slope failure events in mountain ranges around the world have been recorded, and some have been attributed to permafrost thaw induced by climate change. The 1987 Val Pola landslide that killed 22 people in the Italian Alps is considered one such example. In 2002, massive rock and ice falls (up to 11.8 million m3), earthquakes (up to 3.9 Richter), floods (up to 7.8 million m3 water), and rapid rock-ice flow to long distances (up to 7.5 km at 60 m/s) were attributed to slope instability in high mountain permafrost. , Canada, 2013. Permafrost thaw can also result in the formation of frozen debris lobes (FDLs), which are defined as "slow-moving landslides composed of soil, rocks, trees, and ice". This is a notable issue in the Alaska's southern Brooks Range, where some FDLs measured over in width, in height, and in length by 2012. Consequently, a wide range of infrastructure in permafrost areas is threatened by the thaw. By 2050, it's estimated that nearly 70% of global infrastructure located in the permafrost areas would be at high risk of permafrost thaw, including 30–50% of "critical" infrastructure. The associated costs could reach tens of billions of dollars by the second half of the century. Reducing greenhouse gas emissions in line with the Paris Agreement is projected to stabilize the risk after mid-century; otherwise, it will continue to worsen. Similar estimates were done for RCP4.5, a less intense scenario which leads to around by 2100, a level of warming similar to the current projections. In that case, total damages from permafrost thaw are reduced to $3 billion, while damages to roads and railroads are lessened by approximately two-thirds (from $700 and $620 million to $190 and $220 million) and damages to pipelines are reduced more than ten-fold, from $170 million to $16 million. Unlike the other costs stemming from climate change in Alaska, such as damages from increased precipitation and flooding, climate change adaptation is not a viable way to reduce damages from permafrost thaw, as it would cost more than the damage incurred under either scenario. By 2022, up to 80% of buildings in some Northern Russia cities had already experienced damage. This includes oil and gas extraction facilities, of which 45% are believed to be at risk. s and other persistent organic pollutants are of a particular concern, due to their potential to repeatedly reach local communities after their re-release through biomagnification in fish. At worst, future generations born in the Arctic would enter life with weakened immune systems due to pollutants accumulating across generations. deposits. An estimated 800,000 tons of mercury are frozen in the permafrost soil. According to observations, around 70% of it is simply taken up by vegetation after the thaw. Revival of ancient organisms Microorganisms could occur between the older, formerly frozen bacteria, and modern ones, and one outcome could be the introduction of novel antibiotic resistance genes into the genome of current pathogens, exacerbating what is already expected to become a difficult issue in the future. and other scientists argue that the risk of ancient microorganisms being both able to survive the thaw and to threaten humans is not scientifically plausible. Likewise, some research suggests that antimicrobial resistance capabilities of ancient bacteria would be comparable to, or even inferior to modern ones. Plants In 2012, Russian researchers proved that permafrost could serve as a natural repository for ancient life forms by reviving a sample of Silene stenophylla from 30,000-year-old tissue found in an Ice Age squirrel burrow in the Siberian permafrost. This is the oldest plant tissue ever revived. The resultant plant was fertile, producing white flowers and viable seeds. The study demonstrated that living tissue can survive ice preservation for tens of thousands of years. == History of scientific research ==

Between the middle of the 19th century and the middle of the 20th century, most of the literature on basic permafrost science and the engineering aspects of permafrost was written in Russian. One of the earliest written reports describing the existence of permafrost dates to 1684, when well excavation efforts in Yakutsk were stumped by its presence. according to Karl Ernst von Baer (1843), and other authors. Baer is also known to have composed the world's first permafrost textbook in 1843, (Materials for the study of the perennial ground-ice in Siberia), written in his native German. However, it was not printed then, and a Russian translation was not ready until 1942. The original German textbook was believed to be lost until the typescript from 1843 was discovered in the library archives of the University of Giessen. The 234-page text was available online, with additional maps, preface and comments. That report coined the English term as a contraction of permanently frozen ground, in what was considered a direct translation of the Russian term (). In 1953, this translation was criticized by another USGS researcher Inna Poiré, as she believed the term had created unrealistic expectations about its stability: more recently, some researchers have argued that "perpetually refreezing" would be a more suitable translation. The report itself was classified (as U.S. Army. Office of the Chief of Engineers, Strategic Engineering Study, no. 62, 1943), until a revised version was released in 1947, which is regarded as the first North American treatise on the subject. . Consequently, there has been a massive acceleration in published scientific literature. Around 1990, almost no papers containing the words "permafrost" and "carbon" were released: by 2020, around 400 such papers were published yearly. == References ==