Alpine ibex

Carl Linnaeus first described the Alpine ibex in 1758. It is classified in the genus Capra with nine other species of goat. while the species name is translated from Latin as and is possibly derived from an earlier Alpine language. Fossils of the genus Tossunnoria are found in late Miocene deposits in China; these fossils appear to have been transitional between goats and their ancestors. Fossils of the Alpine ibex dating from the last glacial period during the late Pleistocene have been found in France and Italy. The Alpine Ibex and the Iberian ibex (C. pyrenaica) probably evolved from the extinct Pleistocene species Capra camburgensis, whose fossils have been found in Germany. The Alpine ibex appears to have been larger during the Pleistocene than in the modern day. Genetic evidence from 2006 has supported the status of these Ibexes as separate species. }} ==Appearance==

Alpine ibexes are sexually dimorphic. The species has brownish-grey hair over most of its body but lighter in colour on the belly with dark markings on the chin and throat. The hair on the chest region is nearly black and there are stripes along the dorsal (back) surface. The Alpine ibex is duller-coloured than other members of its genus. As with other goats, only males have a beard. Ibexes moult in spring, when their thick winter coat consisting of woolly underfur is replaced with a short, thin summer coat. Their winter coat grows back in the autumn. As in other members of Capra, the Alpine ibex has glands near the eyes, groin, and feet but none on the face. ==Distribution and habitat==

The Alpine ibex is native to the Alps of central Europe; its range includes France, Switzerland, Liechtenstein, Italy, Germany, and Austria. Between the 16th and 18th centuries, the species disappeared from much of its range due to hunting, leaving by the 19th century one surviving population in and around Gran Paradiso, Italy. The species has since been reintroduced into parts of its former range, as well as new areas such as Slovenia and Bulgaria. Females are more likely to be found on steep slopes while males prefer more level ground. Males inhabit lowland meadows during the spring, when fresh grass appears, In early winter, both males and females move to steep, rocky slopes to avoid dense buildups of snow. Alpine ibexes prefer slopes of 30–45°, and take refuge in small caves and overhangs. ==Behaviour and ecology==

in the Bernese Highlands, Switzerland The Alpine ibex is strictly herbivorous. Its diet consists mostly of grass, which is preferred all year; during the summer, ibexes supplement their diet with herbs, while during autumn and winter they also eat dwarf shrubs and conifer shoots. The most-commonly eaten grass genera are Agrostis, Avena, Calamagrostis, Festuca, Phleum, Poa, Sesleria, and Trisetum. High temperatures cause heat stress in large adult males, reducing their feeding time, but they may avoid this problem by feeding at night. In Gran Paradiso, home ranges of the Alpine Ibex can exceed and in reintroduced populations, home ranges may approach . Ibexes do not hibernate during the winter; they take shelter on cold winter nights and bask in the mornings. They also reduce their heart rate and metabolism. The Alpine ibex may compete for resources with chamois and red deer; The Alpine ibex's climbing ability is such that it has been observed scaling the 57-degree slopes of the Cingino Dam in Piedmont, Italy, where it licks salts. Only females and kids, which are lighter and have shorter legs than adult males, climb the steep dam. Kids have been observed at ascending in a zig-zag path and descending in straight paths. Social behaviour The Alpine ibex is a social species but it tends to live in groups that are based on sex and age. Female groups consist of 5–10 members and male groups usually have 2–16 members but sometimes have more than 50. Adult males, particularly older males, are more likely to be found alone than females. Social spacing tends to be looser in the summer, when there is more room to feed. Ibexes have stable social connections; they consistently regroup with the same individuals when ecological conditions force them together. Female groups tend to be more stable than male groups. Hierarchies are established outside the breeding season, allowing males to focus more on mating and less on fighting. Males use their horns for combat; they bash rivals' sides or clash head-to-head often by rearing then clashing downwards. Alpine ibexes communicate mainly through short, sharp whistles that serve mostly as alarm calls and may occur singularly or in succession with short gaps. Females and their young communicate by bleating. After copulation, the male rejoins his group and restarts the first phase of the rut. The female is in oestrus for around 20 days and gestation averages around five months, and typically results in the birth of one or sometimes two kids. Females give birth away from their social groups on rocky slopes that are relatively safe from predators. After a few days, the kids can move on their own. Mothers and kids gather into nursery groups, where young are nursed for up to five months. In males, the horns grow at about per year for the first five-and-a-half years, slowing to half that rate once the animal reaches 10 years of age. The age of an ibex can be determined by annual growth rings in the horns, which stop growing in winter. In one study, all kids reached two years of age and the majority of adults lived for 13 years, although most 13-year-old males did not reach the age of 15. Alpine ibexes have a low rate of predation; and foot rot caused by Dichelobacter nodosus. Infections from Mycoplasma conjunctivae damage the eye via keratoconjunctivitis and can lead to death rates of up to 30%. Ibexes can host gastrointestinal parasites such as coccidia, strongyles, Teladorsagia circumcincta, and Marshallagi amarshalli as well as lungworms, mainly Muellerius capillaris. Several individuals have died from heart diseases, including arteriosclerosis, cardiac fibrosis, sarcosporidiosis, and valvular heart disease. ==Conservation==

During the Middle Ages, the Alpine ibex ranged throughout the Alpine region of Europe. By the 19th century, only around 100 individuals remained in and around Gran Paradiso in north-west Italy and on the Italian-French border. By 1933, the Alpine ibex population reached 4,000 but subsequent mismanagement by the fascist government caused it to drop to around 400 by 1945. Their protection improved again after the war and by 2005, there were 4,000 in the national park. A 2020 analysis found highly deleterious mutations were lost in these new populations but they had also gained mildly deleterious ones. The genetic purity of the species may be threatened by hybridisation with domestic goats, which have been allowed to roam in the Alpine ibex's habitat. The genetic bottleneck may increase vulnerability to infectious diseases because their immune system has low major histocompatibility complex diversity. In the Bornes Massif region of the French Alps, management actions, including a test-and-cull program to control outbreaks, effectively reduced Brucella infection prevalence in adult females from 51% in 2013 to 21% in 2018, and active infections also significantly declined. ==Cultural significance==

The Alpine ibex is called the steinbock, which originated from the Old High German word steinboc, literally "stone buck". The Alpine ibex is one of many animals depicted in the art of the Late Pleistocene-era Magdalenian culture in Western Europe. Local people used ibexes for traditional medicine; The species' value as a source of medicine led to its near extinction. ==References==