Early life Djajakusuma was born on 1 August 1918 in Parakan,
Temanggung, Central Java, Dutch East Indies, to a
priyayi father, Raden Mas Aryo Djojokoesomo, and his wife Kasimah. Djajakusuma was the fifth child of six born to the couple, who lived comfortably off Djojokoesomo's salary as a government official. While young he enjoyed watching stage performances, such as
wayang puppetry and the traditional dance form
tayuban; at times he would furtively leave his home after bedtime to watch the productions. With his friends, he would act out the
bedtime stories his mother told him. When imported
Hollywood films began to be screened, he was an avid viewer, watching
Westerns and works starring
Charlie Chaplin. Owing to his position as the son of a nobleman, Djajakusuma was able to receive an education. He completed his studies in
Semarang, Central Java, graduating from the
natural sciences programme at a senior high school there in 1941. Although his family hoped that he would become a government employee like his father, Djajakusuma decided to go into the
performing arts. He returned to his hometown for a short time before realising that he would have little opportunity in Parakan. Accordingly, in early 1943 – almost a year after the Indies were
occupied by the
Empire of Japan – Djajakusuma moved to the colony's political centre,
Jakarta, to find work. Djajakusuma became employed at the Cultural Centre as a translator and actor under
Armijn Pane. Among the works he translated were several pieces by the Swedish playwright
August Strindberg and Norwegian playwright
Henrik Ibsen, as well as a history of Japan and several
kabuki stage plays. While with the centre, Djajakusuma wrote several of his own stage plays. In his free time, Djajakusuma helped establish the amateur theatre company Maya, together with artists such as
HB Jassin,
Rosihan Anwar, and
Usmar Ismail. The troupe, formed in response to a desire for greater artistic freedom, performed translations of European works and original works by Ismail and El Hakim. To promote a sense of Indonesian nationalism while still conforming with the Japanese censorship bureau's rules, several of Maya's plays did not explicitly promote Japan, but rather the
Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere. Themes supporting the Indonesian nationalist movement, meanwhile, remained implicit in the works. With Maya, Djajakusuma travelled from village to village, putting on performances.
Indonesian National Revolution President
Sukarno proclaimed
Indonesia's independence on 17 August 1945, days after the
bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. Expecting the Dutch colonial government to return, Djajakusuma and Ismail helped establish the Independent Artists (Seniman Merdeka) as a form of resistance. The group travelled throughout the city, spreading news of Indonesia's proclaimed independence while performing from an open-air truck. After the arrival of the
Netherlands Indies Civil Administration, the group sometimes attempted to spy on the Europeans or hide information which would be considered useful to the returning Dutch forces. Owing to this dangerous work, Djajakusuma began carrying a pistol, and went to
Banten to ask a
kyai to make him impervious to bullets. In early 1946, with the Dutch colonial forces in control of Jakarta, Djajakusuma fled to the new national capital at
Yogyakarta. There, he spent a time with the national news agency
Antara before joining the
military's educational division, rising to the rank of captain. For the military Djajakusuma edited the weekly
Tentara; he also contributed articles to Ismail's cultural magazine
Arena. Despite his involvement in the press, he did not abandon the theatre; with Surjo Sumanto, he established a troupe which performed for soldiers and raised morale, sometimes travelling to the frontlines. Djajakusuma was hired by the Ministry of Information in 1947 to teach at a school for the performance arts, the Mataram Entertainment Foundation (). Through Mataram, he and Ismail were introduced to filmmakers
Andjar Asmara, Huyung, and Sutarto; the two studied under these more established individuals. Meanwhile, Djajakusuma was put in charge of censoring radio broadcasts in Republican-held areas, a duty he held until the
Dutch captured Yogyakarta on 19 December 1948. Djajakusuma fled the city, then met up with Republican forces. Using an old radio and a bicycle-powered generator, Djajakusuma listened to international news broadcasts and wrote them down; the information from these broadcasts was then printed in underground newspapers. , who drew Djajakusuma to Perfini in 1951 After the
Indonesian National Revolution ended with Dutch recognition of Indonesia's independence in 1949, Djajakusuma continued to work as a journalist for
Patriot (a rebranding of
Tentara) and the magazine
Kebudajaan Nusantara; Mataram was reopened, and Djajakusuma began teaching there again while managing the Soboharsono cinema and writing several stage plays. Ismail, meanwhile, went back to Jakarta and established the
National Film Corporation (, or Perfini); its first production,
Darah dan Doa (
The Long March), which gave a fictionalised version of the
Siliwangi Division's trek from Yogyakarta to
West Java in 1948, was directed by Ismail and released in 1950.
Career with Perfini In preparation for his second film,
Enam Djam di Jogja (
Six Hours in Yogyakarta), Ismail recalled Djajakusuma to Jakarta. For the film, Djajakusuma helped Ismail adapt the
General Assault of 1 March 1949 for the screen. Production was completed on a low budget; Djajakusuma later recalled that their camera had to be powered by a car battery. Despite this and other difficulties, Djajakusuma stayed on after the film's completion, completing another work for Perfini,
Dosa Tak Berampun (
Unforgivable Sin), later that year. Ismail served as director for this film, about a man who leaves his family after he is transfixed by the smile of a waitress. While Ismail, who remained head of Perfini, went abroad to study cinematography at the
School of Theater, Film and Television at the
University of California, Los Angeles, Djajakusuma began taking a larger role in Perfini. He made his directorial debut in 1952 with
Embun (
Dewdrop), which showed the psychological troubles faced by soldiers upon returning to their village after the revolution. The film was shot in
Wonosari, at the time in the middle of a drought, to provide a visual metaphor for the barren souls of the warriors. Because of its depiction of traditional superstitions, the film had trouble with both the censorship bureau and critics; superstition was considered incompatible with the new republic's need for modernisation. The release of
Embun made Djajakusuma one of four directors to work for Perfini; the others were Ismail, Nya Abas Akup, and Wahyu Sihombing. Djajakusuma's next production,
Terimalah Laguku (
Take My Song; 1952), was a
musical about an old, impoverished musician who sells his saxophone to help his former student's career. Though the film's technical quality was poor, when he returned to Indonesia in 1953 Ismail was pleased with the work, stating that the editing had been done well. Over the next year Ismail conveyed information he learned at UCLA to the Perfini staff; Djajakusuma followed these lessons closely. This was followed by
Harimau Tjampa (
Tiger from Tjampa) in 1953, a film about a man who attempts to avenge his father's death. Set amidst
Minang culture, the film featured some of the first nudity in a domestic production and was a considerable critical success. for the filming of
Arni, 1955 In 1954 Djajakusuma directed two comedies,
Putri dari Medan (
Daughter of Medan) and
Mertua Sinting (
Insane Parents-in-Law). The first dealt with three young men who resolve to never marry, only for their strength to waver after meeting some women from
Medan, while the second followed a man who rejects his son's choice of spouse owing to her lack of noble descent, then unknowingly chooses the same woman to be his son's wife. The following year Djajakusuma helped establish the Indonesian Screen Actors Guild (; PARFI). His only film that year, the drama
Arni, told of a man who
married another woman while his sick wife went to
Padang,
Sumatra, for treatment. Djajakusuma studied cinematography in the United States, first at the
University of Washington in
Seattle, then at the
University of Southern California's
School of Cinematic Arts, from 1956 to 1957. When he returned to Indonesia, he worked with Ismail and fellow Perfini employee
Asrul Sani to establish the National Theatre Academy of Indonesia (), which promoted realism; the Indonesian dramatist
Putu Wijaya described the realism promoted by the academy as more Indonesian than Western, while Djajakusuma considered inspired by the Italian
neorealist movement. Djajakusuma remained a lecturer with the academy until 1970, and his students considered him humorous and easy to approach. Upon his return to Indonesia, Djajakusuma began work on
Tjambuk Api (
Whips of Fire; 1958), a critique of the widespread
corruption in Indonesia; this theme led to the film being held by the censorship bureau for almost a year. The director followed this with the drama
Pak Prawiro (
Mr. Prawiro), which was sponsored by the Post Savings Bank () and meant to convey the importance of having
savings. During this period he studied the traditional theatre of India, travelling to
Calcutta,
Madras, and
New Delhi; he hoped that this first-hand experience would inspire him in the filming of traditional Indonesian stories. In 1960 Djajakusuma released his first film based on traditional
wayang stories,
Lahirnja Gatotkatja; the traditional puppetry had fascinated him as a child, and he greatly enjoyed the character
Gatotkaca. Shot in Yogyakarta, the film featured a cast of stars from Jakarta and local talent in backing roles. It was, however, controversial:
dhalang and others versed in
wayang argued that the director had ignored too many traditional aspects of the puppetry. That year Djajakusuma also served as
production manager for Ismail's
Pedjuang (
Warriors for Freedom) and directed
Mak Tjomblang (
Mrs. Tjomblang), a comedy adapted from
Nikolai Gogol's 1842 drama
Marriage. Djajakusuma released another comedy,
Masa Topan dan Badai (
Time of Cyclones and Storms), in 1963; the film centres around the family dynamics of a conservative father, liberal mother, and their two teenaged daughters who are in the throes of adolescence. The following year Djajakusuma directed his last film with Perfini,
Rimba Bergema (
Echoing Jungles), which was meant to promote the nation's
rubber industry. That year he helped establish the Film and TV Employee's Union (), a response to the
Lekra-sponsored Indonesian Film League. As with Ismail and most Perfini employees, Djajakusuma was staunchly against the
communist-affiliated Lekra; the cultural group was likewise hostile towards those affiliated with Perfini.
Later career Towards the end of his time with Perfini, Djajakusuma again became active in traditional arts. He devoted considerable time towards the promotion of
wayang. In 1967 he organised the National Wayang Festival, which collapsed shortly afterwards owing to a lack of funds. In 1967 he directed the
wayang-inspired film
Bimo Kroda for Pantja Murti Film, which used the destruction of the
Pandawa – brothers in the Hindu epic
Mahābhārata – to represent the kidnappings and subsequent murders of five army generals during the
30 September Movement in 1965. Djajakusuma's involvement with
wayang continued into the early 1970s; he organised two Wayang Weeks, in 1970 and 1974, as well as a national
wayang festival in 1977. Furthermore, he established two
wayang orang troupes, Jaya Budaya (1971) and Bharata (1973), hoping to save the ailing medium by modernising it. Meanwhile, Djajakusuma helped promote art forms such as the
Betawi lenong and
Javanese ludruk over a period of several years. He is particularly recognised for his revitalising
lenong. Beginning in 1968, Djajakusuma appeared on television as an advocate of
lenong, which was then limited to rural villages and on the verge of dying out. He increased popular knowledge of the form while arguing for proper remuneration for performers. Through the 1970s
lenong was performed at
Ismail Marzuki Hall, drawing considerable audiences, and several
lenong performers found mainstream acclaim in the film industry. Djajakusuma also promoted non-traditional cultural activities, both modern and foreign. In 1968 he became the head of the Jakarta Art Council, a position he held until 1977, and in 1970 he held a
kroncong music festival. Beginning with the school's establishment in 1970, he became a lecturer at the Jakarta Institute for Arts Education (, later the Jakarta Art Institute [, or IKJ]), teaching cinematography. To better understand the world's theatre, in 1977 he went to Japan and China to study their traditions. He later led the students in various stage performances, including adaptations of Japanese
noh and
Chinese opera; several of these performances were held at Ismail Marzuki Hall. In the 1970s Djajakusuma held a variety of positions in film organisations, including as a member of the Film Council (1974–76), a member of the board of trustees for Radio and TV Broadcasts (1976), and a member of the Bureau for the Development of National Film (1977–78). Djajakusuma's productivity in the film industry, however, declined. In 1971 he directed his final films,
Api di Bukit Menoreh (
Fire on Mount Menoreh) and
Malin Kundang (Anak Durhaka) (
Malin Kundang [Faithless Child]). The first, released for Penas Film Studio and based on a novel by Singgih Hadi Mintardja, followed soldiers from the
Kingdom of Pajang in their efforts to subdue soldiers from the rival kingdom of Jipang. The second film was an adaptation of the
Malay folktale of the same name. Starring
Rano Karno and Putu Wijaya as the title character, the film follows a young boy who forgets his roots after spending much of his childhood at sea. His last role as a filmmaker was in 1977, when he helped produce Fritz G. Schadt's comedy
Bang Kojak (
Brother Kojak; 1977).
Final years and death In 1977 Djajakusuma served on the jury of the
Indonesian Film Festival (, or FFI). While reading the decision, he collapsed and was rushed to the hospital, while Rosihan Anwar completed the reading. Djajakusuma's neighbour and frequent collaborator
Taufiq Ismail told reporters that it was not the first time Djajakusuma had collapsed. Djajakusuma continued to suffer from bouts of sudden weakness for the rest of his life, caused by high blood pressure. Despite his rapidly failing health, Djajakusuma remained active in the arts. In 1980 he made his last film appearance, and his only role on the big screen, acting in Ismail Soebardjo's
Perempuan dalam Pasungan (
Woman in Stocks). He and
Sofia WD portrayed parents who regularly put their daughter in
stocks to punish her for being disobedient; in an interview with
Suara Karya, Soebardjo recalled that, from the time he had written it, he had only considered Djajakusuma for the role.
Perempuan dalam Pasungan won the
Citra Award for Best Film at the 1981 Indonesian Film Festival, and Djajakusuma expressed an interest in making several further films; this was, however, never realised. In 1983 Djajakusuma served as dean of the Faculty of Arts at IKJ, and in 1984 he went to the
Three Continents Festival in
Nantes, France, where two of his films were shown to critical acclaim. In early 1987 Djajakusuma's doctor diagnosed him with
heart disease, which led Djajakusuma to begin dieting and stop smoking. He continued to be highly respected in Indonesian film circles, but was displeased with the condition of the country's film industry, which he considered to be on the verge of collapse. This he blamed on American
cultural imperialism, which meant that most cinemas preferred screening foreign films, especially those from Hollywood, and that Indonesian youth were no longer creating a uniquely Indonesian identity. Djajakusuma collapsed on 28 October 1987 while giving a speech in commemoration of the
Youth Pledge at the IKJ, striking his head on a stone step. After being rushed to Cikini General Hospital, he was declared dead at 10:05 a.m. local time (UTC+7). He was buried at
Karet Bivak Cemetery that evening, after ceremonies at the IKJ led by the author
Sutan Takdir Alisjahbana and prayers at the Amir Hamzah Mosque in Ismail Marzuki Hall led by the poet Taufiq Ismail. Among the mourners were the former Minister of Information
Boediardjo, the Minister of Education and Culture
Fuad Hassan, and the Deputy Governor of Jakarta Anwar Umar. Djajakusuma had never married, but left behind several nieces and nephews whom he had raised as his own children. After his death, newspapers throughout Jakarta carried obituaries by such cultural and film figures as Alisjahbana, the producer
Misbach Yusa Biran, and the Perfini cameraman Soemardjono. These obituaries emphasised Djajakusuma's role in the development of the Indonesian film industry and the preservation of traditional culture. In a ceremony commemorating the fifth anniversary of Djajakusuma's death, all his documents and books were donated to the IKJ library. ==Style==