Possession In Ternate Malay, words do not align its forms with its grammatical roles; therefore, the functions of words are often determined by linguistic context and non-linguistic situation. In this case,
possessions are often used as a tool to determine the borders of
constituents for the sake of successful interpretation of word meanings and functions. Generally, words in Ternate Malay are often constructed in
head-initial structure, except from the two possessive constructions
– Y pe X constructions and
YX constructions, where words are constructed in
head-final structure.
Y pe X constructions In the
Y pe X construction, the Y element refers to the
modifier (
possessor) while the X element refers to the
head (
possessum). The
possessor and
possessum are connected by
pe, in which the
possessum expresses
de facto a
nominal meaning. In English, the Y
pe X constructions gives the meaning of ‘Y’s X’ and ‘the X of Y’. According to Litamahuputty,
Y pe X construction can express different meanings ranging from
possession in animate subjects and inanimate subjects to non-possessive meanings. The examples below are extracted from Litamahuputty to illustrate situations when
Y pe X construction is used to express
possessions.
Non-human relationships X is part of Y In example (1),
tong pe kaki is a possessive construction where the
possessor tong ‘the first person plural – our’ is connected to the
possessum kaki ‘leg’ using
pe. Together, the construction gives the meaning of
‘our leg’, in which the leg is a part of ‘our’ body, demonstrating the relationship of ‘X is part of Y’ {{interlinear|number=(1)
X is a product of Y In example (2),
ular pe bisa is a possessive construction where the
possessor ular ‘snake’ is connected to the
possessum bisa ‘venom’ using
pe. Together, the construction means
‘the snake’s venom’, in which the venom is produced by the snake, demonstrating the relationship of ‘X is a product of Y’. {{interlinear|number=(2)
X is a feature of Y In example (3),
motor pe warna is a possessive construction where the
possessor motor ‘motorcycle’ is connected to the
possessum warna ‘colour’ using
pe. Together, the construction gives the meaning of
‘the colour of the motorcycle’, in which the colour is one of the features (such as shape, model, engine…etc.) of the motorcycle, demonstrating the relationship of ‘X is a feature of Y’. {{interlinear|number=(3)
Human relationships Social relationship In example (4),
bank pe bini is a possessive construction where the
possessor bank ‘bank employee’ is connected to the
possessum bini ‘wife’ using
pe. Together, the construction brings the meaning of
‘the bank employees’ wives’, which expresses the social relationship between the humane animates. {{interlinear|number=(4)
Kinship relationship In example (5),
Fadin pe kaka is a possessive construction where the
possessor Fadin (a proper noun) is connected to the
possessum kaka ‘older sibling’
. Together, the construction gives the meaning of
‘Fadin’s older brother’, which expresses the kinship relationship between the two humane animates. {{interlinear|number=(5)
Time relationships Future relationship Example (6) is about a story of how the speaker accidentally spilled hot oil on himself. In the possessive construction
de pe beso, the
possessor de ‘third person singular’ refers to the day of incident, where the
possessum beso ‘tomorrow’ refers to the day after the incident. Future time relationship is shown between the day of incident and the day after the incident. {{interlinear|number=(6)
Past relationship Example (7) is about the journey of the speaker and his friends in an island where he heard a strange voice. In the possessive construction
de pe kalamareng malang, the
possessor de ‘third person singular’ refers to the moment when the speaker was talking, where the
possessum kalamareng malang ‘yesterday night’ refers to the night before that moment, demonstrating past time relationship between the time when the speaker heard strange voice and the time he talked. {{interlinear|number=(7)
Human Quality Quality In Example (8),
de pe bae is a possessive expression where the possessor
de ‘third person singular – his’ is connected to the possesum
bae ‘kindness’ with
pe. The expression has the meaning of
‘his kindness’, demonstrating a quality of the humane subject. This relationship is similar to
X is a feature of Y which was demonstrated earlier, where example (8) refers to an animate and example (3) refers to an inanimate. {{interlinear|number=(8) From the above examples, it can be seen that wide ranges of
possessions, including
possessions in human, animals, objects or even abstract items like time, can be demonstrated from the
Y pe X constructions. As mentioned earlier, word functions in Ternate Malay are often determined from contexts rather than word forms. Therefore, not all
Y pe X constructions show possessive meanings. The examples below demonstrate situations where
Y pe X construction is used to express meanings other than
possession, for example, to express evaluative meanings or additional information: ; When the possessum (X) denotes a quality with exclamative markers, it has an evaluative meaning rather than a possessive meaning. In example (9), the Y element in the
Y pe X construction ‘ngana pe capat’ is
ngana, which refers to
‘second person singular’; and the X element is
capa’, which refers to
‘fast’. Since the sentence is expressed in exclamative intonations, which can be shown from the
exclamation mark used at the end of the sentence and the use of
ih (the exclamative expression), the construction has the evaluative meaning of
‘how fast you are!’ rather than a possessive meaning of referring the ‘quality of fastness’ to the subject. {{interlinear|number=(9) ; When the possessum (X) denotes an action or activity, it supplies additional information to the action or activity rather than showing possessions. In example (10), the Y element in the
Y pe X construction ‘paitua pe cuci balanga’ is
paitua, which refers to
‘old man’; and the X element is
cuci balanga, which refers to
‘to wash a wok’. The example provided extra information on what surprised the speaker rather than showing
possession between the old man and his way of washing a wok. {{interlinear|number=(10)
YX constructions In the
YX construction, the Y element refers to the
modifier (
possessor), which is often a personal pronoun or a kinship term; and the X element refers to the
head (
possessum), which is often a thing word. The construction also has a meaning of ‘Y’s X’ and ‘the X of Y’ in English. The examples below are extracted from Litamahuputty, which demonstrated the use of element Y as a
personal pronoun and kinship term in
YX constructions: Possessor Y as a personal pronoun Example (11) has demonstrated the use of
YX construction with element Y as a
personal pronoun, where the
possessor dong refers to
‘third person plural’ and the
possessum parau refers to
‘boat’. Together, it has the meaning of
‘their boat’ . {{interlinear|number=(11)
Possessor Y as a kinship term Example (12) has demonstrated the use of
YX construction with element Y as a kinship term, where the
possessor tete refers to grandfather and the
possessum papa refers to father. Together, the expression has the meaning of
‘the grandfather’s father’, demonstrating the kinship relationship. {{interlinear|number=(12)
Personal pronouns Personal pronouns in North Moluccan Malay only distinguish between
person (first, second and third person) and
number (singular and plural). Some pronouns can also be used to show respect to other speakers.
Politeness The use of the first person singular pronouns
kita and
saya is dependent on the speech situation.
Kita is used when talking to others of the same or lower age, rank or status. On the other hand,
saya is used in more formal situations or when conversing with someone with a higher rank or status, to show respect to the other person. The second person singular and plural pronouns,
ngana and
ngoni also share a similar distinction.
Ngana is used to refer to an addressee if they of the same or lower age, rank or status. Otherwise speakers may use personal names or kinship terms to refer to the addressee. Alternatively, the plural second person pronoun
ngoni can occasionally be used to refer to a single addressee respectfully, although it is typically reserved for addressing a group of people. These distinctions are demonstrated in example (1) where the speaker telling his friends of a situation where he explains to a woman that he does not want to accept money for helping to carry her shopping onto the bus. Since he is talking to his friends he refers to himself as
kita, but because he is not familiar with the woman he uses the more respectful
saya to refer to himself and
ngoni to address her. {{interlinear|number=(1)
Full and shortened forms For pronouns with a full and shortened form, the two forms may be used interchangeably in most contexts. However, following the conjunction
deng or prepositions (such as
di,
ka,
dari or
pa) only the full form may be used. This is seen in example (2) where the short form
de is used except following the preposition
pa, where the full forms
dia and
torang appear instead: {{interlinear|number=(2) In addition, the shortened forms do not appear post-verbally (i.e. after predicates). Hence in the following example
tong cannot appear after the verb
bunu "kill", only the full form
torang is allowed: {{interlinear|number=(3) The full form of the first person plural pronoun
torang is actually a shortening of
kitorang which is sometimes used by older speakers however younger speakers rarely use this form. The only exceptions to the two restrictions mentioned above is when the pronoun is part of a Y
pe X
possessive construction in which case the shortened form may be used as the possessor Y. Example (4) shows a possessive Y
pe X construction containing the first person plural short form pronoun
dong occurring after a preposition
pa: {{interlinear|number=(4) Similarly, example (5) shows the third person singular short form pronoun
de occurring after the verb
iko "follow" also as part of a Y
pe X possessive construction. This contrasts with the use of the full form
dia after the second instance of
iko, where the pronoun is no longer part of a possessive construction: {{interlinear|number=(5)
Negation North Moluccan Malay uses predicate operators to express negation (negators). Predicate operators are used to express certain meaning aspects, they also act as a grammatical function by showing that the construction in which they take part in is best to be interpreted as predicate.
tara 'not (present)' and
bukang 'not' are two negators that are frequently used to negate predicates in this language.
tara implies absolute absence 'not present'; however, while used in negating thing constructions contexts,
tara could mean 'not possess'. On the other hand,
bukang implies a contradiction 'not A, (but B)'. In negating thing constructions,
bukang negates the identity of the thing and implies an alternative.
Negator tara Examples of the usage of negator
tara 'not (present)' can be seen in the following sentences. Example (1) shows negator
tara preceding predicate
tidor 'sleep', this results
tara tidor 'not sleep'. {{interlinear|number=(1) In example (2), the predicate
sadiki 'a little' refers to a small amount. Preceded by negator
tara,
tara sadiki 'not a little' refers to the subject of the example
de pe sajara 'the history', which has a Y
pe X possession construction.
tara sadiki 'not a little' in this case describes the amount of the subject as the entity. {{interlinear|number=(2) Example (3) shows
tara negating predicate
dua 'two' which refers to an amount. In this case,
tara dua 'there are no two (of them)' works as an expression which means that something has no equal. The subject
kita pe mara ni 'my anger' expresses the entity that it has no (second) equivalent. {{interlinear|number=(3) Example (4) displays tara with the meaning 'not possess'. The predicate consists of negator tara 'not' preceding cewe 'girl' resulting tara cewe 'no girl(friend)'. This predicate describes the state of subject kita 'first person singular' which make the meaning 'not possess' of tara relevant. This results tara cewe to have the meaning 'do not have a girl(friend)'. {{interlinear|number=(4) Similar to example (4), example (5) shows the sense of 'not possess' of
tara. The story of example (5) is that the speaker thought that he was offered tea when it was actually instant coffee. The explanation is that he was not familiar with instant coffee since he usually drank coffee that had coffee dregs in it. In this example, the predicate is constructed of negator
tara and
ampas 'dregs', this results
tara ampas '(there are) no dregs' which in this situation
ampas is coffee dregs. {{interlinear|number=(5) Negator
tara also has variations, one of them is when it precedes
ada 'be present' then it can merge into
tarada 'not present'. Generally,
tara ada 'not be present' and
tarada can be used interchangeably; however, some speaker might have clear distinction between the two. Example (6) shows that the predicate consists of negator
tara and
ada resulting
tara ada 'not present'. The predicate precede the subject
aer 'water', therefore it has a predicate-subject construction of
tara ada aer 'there is no water'. {{interlinear|number=(6) Example (7) has
tarada as its predicate. The example consisted of two clauses, the first one
samua tikus kacili 'all mice are small' which describes the size of the mice. The second clause consists of predicate
tarada and
yang basar 'big ones' (with the information from the previous clause, this refers to the mice). This also constructs a predicate-subject construction as found in example (6), which results
tarada yang basar 'there are no big ones'. {{interlinear|number=(7)
tarada could also act as the negative response to questions, this function could be applied to example (8). In this example, the speaker gives two alternatives of the possible results of a soccer player kicking a ball. The first alternative is that there would be a
gol 'goal', while the second one there wouldn't
tarada 'not (present)'.
tarada 'no' could be used give this question a negative answer. {{interlinear|number=(8)
tar is another variation of
tara, which is a shorten form of it.
tar can immediately precede a predicate and no other lexical material can intervene. It seems that
tar is in a progress of becoming a bound element
tar- to express negation. Example (9) shows the use of
tar as the shortened form of
tara in the predicate which is then followed by
tau 'know'. This results
tar tau ' not know'. {{interlinear|number=(9)
Negator bukang Negator
bukang means 'not A, (but B)', it implies that the opposite or the alternative of the expressed is prominent. It is not obligatory to overtly express the opposite or alternative. Example (10) has a story of a man to be mistaken as a porter, therefore he explained that he was not. The example has negator
bukang preceding
ana-ana baangka 'porter', this results
bukang ana-ana baangka 'not a porter'. In this example,
ana-ana baangka is the negated scope. {{interlinear|number=(10) Different from example (10) that doesn't imply explicitly the alternative or opposite, example (11) states clearly the alternative of the negated thing. Example (11) has a story of someone asking the speaker if there is actually a snake in his garden. The speaker then answer the question using
bukang which negates
di atas,
di atas refers to a location on the hill. The alternative or the opposite is stated as
di bawa barangka 'at the lower part, at the ditch'. {{interlinear|number=(11) Example (12) displays a case where
bukang negates a clause. The story of example (12) is about a boat that seem to be moving by itself, which then the real cause is explained.
bukang precedes
dong panggayung 'they paddle' in order to perform negation. The alternative, which in this case is the real reason of the situation, is stated as
ikang kase lari dong parao 'a fish takes away their boat'. The negation scope in this example is on the people who paddle the boat, because it was actually the fish that moved the boat instead of the people. {{interlinear|number=(12) {{interlinear|number=(12) REL:relativizer PART:particle ==See also==