Germanic The
Norsemen entering the pact of foster brotherhood () involved a rite in which they let their blood flow while they ducked underneath an arch formed by a strip of turf propped up by a spear or spears. An example is described in
Gísla saga. In
Fóstbræðra saga, the bond of Thorgeir Havarsson (Þorgeir Hávarsson) and Thormod Bersason (Þormóð Bersason) is sealed by such ritual as well, the ritual being called a
leikr. ''
Örvar-Oddr's saga'' contains another notable account of blood brotherhood.
Örvar-Oddr, after fighting the renowned Swedish warrior
Hjalmar to a draw, entered a foster brotherhood with him by the turf-raising ritual. Afterwards, the strand of turf was put back during oaths and incantations. In the mythology of
Northern Europe,
Gunther and
Högni became the blood brothers of
Sigurd when he married their sister
Gudrun. In
Wagner's opera
Götterdämmerung, the concluding part of his
Ring Cycle, the same occurs between Gunther and Wagner's version of Sigurd,
Siegfried, which is marked by the "Blood Brotherhood
Leitmotiv". Additionally, it is briefly stated in
Lokasenna that
Odin and
Loki are blood brothers.
Scythia Among the
Scythians, the covenantors would allow their blood to drip into a cup; the blood was subsequently mixed with wine and drunk by both participants. Every man was limited to having three blood brotherhoods at any time lest his loyalties be distrusted. As a consequence, blood brotherhood was highly sought after and often preceded by a lengthy period of affiliation and friendship (
Lucian,
Toxaris). The 4th-century BC depictions of two Scythian warriors drinking from a single
drinking horn (most notably in a gold appliqué from
Kul-Oba) have been associated with the Scythian oath of blood brotherhood. The Hungarian
hajduks had a similar ceremony, but the wine was often replaced with milk so that the blood would be more visible.
East Asia In
Asian cultures, the act and the ceremony of becoming blood brothers is generally seen as a
tribal relationship for bringing about alliance between tribes. It was practiced for that reason most notably by the
Mongols,
Turkic and
Chinese. In
Romance of the Three Kingdoms, the Chinese classical literature, the three main characters took an oath of blood brother, the
Oath of the Peach Garden, by sacrificing a black ox and a white horse and by swearing faith. Other blood oaths involving animal sacrifice were characteristic of rebel groups, such as the uprising led by
Deng Maoqi in the 1440s, of criminal organizations, such as the
triads or the pirates of
Lin Daoqian, and other East Asians such as the
Mongols and the
Manchu.
Genghis Khan had an
anda called
Jamukha. The term also exist in
Old Turkic:
ant ičmek ("to take an oath"), derived from the "ancient test by poison". The Turkic term, if it is not a loanword in
Middle Mongol, is related to Mongol
anda.
Philippines , a romanticized painting of the Sandugo''
blood compact ritual between the Spanish explorer
Miguel López de Legazpi and
Datu Sikatuna of
Bohol,
Philippines; by
Juan Luna (1886) In the
Philippines,
blood compacts (
sandugo or
sanduguan, literally "one blood") were ancient rituals that were intended to seal a friendship or treaty or to validate an agreement. They were described in the records of the early Spanish and Portuguese explorers to the islands. The most well-known version of the ritual from the
Visayan people involves mixing a drop of blood from both parties into a single cup of wine that is then drunk. Other versions also exist, like in
Palawan which describes a ritual involving making a cut on the chest and then daubing the blood on the tongue and forehead.
Sub-Saharan Africa The blood oath was used in much the same fashion as has already been described in much of
Sub-Saharan Africa. The British colonial administrator
Lord Lugard is famous for having become blood brothers with numerous African chiefs as part of his political policy in Africa. A powerful blood brother was the
Kikuyu chieftain
Waiyaki Wa Hinga.
David Livingstone wrote of a similar practice called 'Kasendi'.
Eastern Europe Blood brothers among larger groups were common in ancient
Eastern Europe, where, for example, whole companies of soldiers would become one family through the ceremony. It was perhaps most prevalent in the
Balkans during the
Ottoman era, as it helped the oppressed people to fight the enemy more effectively. Blood brotherhoods were common in what is today
Albania,
Bosnia and Herzegovina,
Bulgaria,
Croatia,
Greece,
Montenegro,
Serbia,
North Macedonia,
Poland,
Russia,
Ukraine,
Slovakia, and
Czech Republic.
Christianity also recognized sworn brotherhood in a ceremony, which was known as , in the
Eastern Orthodox Churches and as in the
Catholic Church. The tradition of intertwining arms and drinking wine is also believed to be a representation of becoming blood brothers. ==Famous blood brothers==