The region politically had its origins in the
Carolingian Empire; more precisely, most of the people were within the Duchy of
Lower Lotharingia. After the disintegration of Lower Lotharingia, the Low Countries were brought under the rule of various lordships until they came to be in the hands of the
Valois Dukes of Burgundy. Hence, a large part of the Low Countries came to be referred to as the
Burgundian Netherlands. After the reign of the Valois Dukes ended, much of the region was controlled by the
House of Habsburg. The area was referred to as the
Habsburg Netherlands, which was also called the
Seventeen Provinces up to 1581. Even after the political
secession of the autonomous
Dutch Republic (or "United Provinces") in the north, the term "Low Countries" continued to be used to refer collectively to the region. The region was temporarily united politically between 1815 and 1839, as the
United Kingdom of the Netherlands, which later became three countries: the Netherlands, Belgium and Luxembourg.
Early history The Low Countries were part of the
Roman provinces of
Gallia Belgica and
Germania Inferior. They were inhabited by
Belgic and
Germanic tribes. In the 4th and 5th century,
Frankish tribes had entered this Roman region and came to run it increasingly independently. They came to be ruled by the
Merovingian dynasty, under which dynasty the southern part (below the
Rhine) was re-
Christianised.
Frankish Empire By the late 8th century, the Low Countries formed a core part of a much-expanded
Francia, and the Merovingians were replaced by the
Carolingian dynasty. In 800, the Pope crowned and appointed
Charlemagne Emperor of the re-established
Roman Empire. After the death of
Emperor Louis the Pious, Francia was divided in three parts among his three sons. The middle part,
Middle Francia, was ruled by
Lothair I and thereby also came to be referred to as "Lotharingia" or "Lorraine". Apart from the original coastal
County of Flanders, which was within
West Francia, the rest of the Low Countries were within itas lowland part, "
Lower Lorraine". After the death of Lothair, the Low Countries were coveted by the rulers of both
West Francia and
East Francia. Each tried to swallow the region and to merge it with their spheres of influence. Thus, the Low Countries consisted of
fiefs, whose sovereignty resided with either the
Kingdom of France or the
Holy Roman Empire. While the further history the Low Countries can be seen as the object of a continual struggle between both powers, the title of
Duke of Lothier was coveted in the Low Countries for centuries.
Duchy of Burgundy In the 14th and the 15th centuries, separate fiefs came gradually to be ruled by a single family through
royal intermarriage. The process culminated in the rule of the
House of Valois, who were the rulers of the
Duchy of Burgundy. At the height of Burgundian influence, the Low Countries became the political, cultural and economic centre of
Northern Europe and was noted for its crafts and luxury goods, notably
Early Netherlandish painting, the work of artists who were active in the flourishing cities of
Bruges,
Ghent,
Mechelen,
Leuven,
Tournai and
Brussels, all of which are in present-day Belgium. Musicians of the
Franco-Flemish School were highly sought by the leading classes of all of Europe. , The
Arnolfini Portrait, 1434,
National Gallery, London
Seventeen Provinces In 1477, the
Burgundian holdings in the area passed through an heiress,
Mary of Burgundy, to the
Habsburgs. Charles V, who inherited the territory in 1506, was named ruler by the
States General and styled himself as
Heer der Nederlanden (). He continued to rule the territories as a multitude of duchies and principalities until the Low Countries were eventually united into one indivisible territory, the
Seventeen Provinces, covered by the
Pragmatic Sanction of 1549 and retaining existing customs, laws and forms of government within the provinces. The Pragmatic Sanction transformed the agglomeration of lands into a unified entity of which the Habsburgs would be the heirs. By streamlining the succession law in all Seventeen Provinces and declaring that all of them would be inherited by one heir, Charles effectively united the Netherlands as one entity. After Charles' abdication in 1555, the Seventeen Provinces passed to his son,
Philip II of Spain.
Division The Pragmatic Sanction is said to be one example of the Habsburg contest with
particularism, which contributed to the
Dutch Revolt. Each of the provinces had its own laws, customs and political practices. The new policy, imposed from the outside, angered many inhabitants, who viewed their provinces as distinct entities. It and other monarchical acts, such as the creation of bishoprics and promulgation of laws against
heresy, stoked resentments, which fired the eruption of the
Dutch Revolt. After the northern
Seven United Provinces declared their independence from
Habsburg Spain in 1581, the ten provinces of the
Southern Netherlands remained occupied by the
Army of Flanders under Spanish service and so became sometimes called the
Spanish Netherlands. In 1713, under the
Treaty of Utrecht after the
War of the Spanish Succession, what was left of the Spanish Netherlands was ceded to
Austria and thus became known as the
Austrian Netherlands. Some states like the
Bouillon,
Cambrésis,
East Frisia,
Liège and
Stavelot-Malmedy did not become part of the wider policies and remained at least nominally independent. Liège was excluded from the
Burgundian Circle, was instead incorporated into the
Lower Rhenish–Westphalian Circle and later become regularly part of a
personal union with bishoprics like the
Electorate of Cologne under the
Wittelsbach dynasty. File:Kenau_Hasselaar_op_de_wallen_van_Haarlem.gif|
Kenau Simonsdochter Hasselaer defending the walls during the
Siege of Haarlem (1572–1573) File:De stadt Maastricht, door den prins van Parma (Alexander Farnese) met storm verovert, den 29 july des jaars 1579 (Jan Luyken, 1679).jpg|Sack of
Maastricht by the
Tercios de Flandes (Flemish Regiments) in 1579 File:Famien Strada Histoire-Capture of Tournai 1581-ppn087811480 MG 8936T3p287.tif|Siege and capture of
Tournai (1581) File:Oostende.1601.JPG|Map of
Ostend during the
siege in 1601 Modern period The
United Kingdom of the Netherlands (1815–1830) temporarily united the Low Countries again before it was divided into the three modern countries of the Netherlands, Belgium and Luxembourg. During the early months of
World War I in 1914, the
Central Powers invaded the Low Countries of Luxembourg and Belgium in what has been come to be known as the
German invasion of Belgium, which led to the German occupation of the two countries. However, the German advance into France was quickly halted, causing a military stalemate for most of the war. In the end, a total of approximately 56,000 people were killed in the invasion. During
World War II, when
Adolf Hitler's gaze turned his strategy west toward France, the Low Countries were an easy route around the imposing French
Maginot Line. He ordered a conquest of the Low Countries with the shortest possible notice to forestall the French and prevent
Allied air power from threatening the strategic
Ruhr Area of Germany. It would also provide the basis for a long-term air and sea campaign against Britain. As much as possible of the border areas in northern France should be occupied. Germany's
Blitzkrieg tactics rapidly overpowered the defences of Belgium, the Netherlands and Luxembourg. All three countries were occupied from May 1940 to early 1945. During the occupation, their governments were forced into exile in Britain. In 1944, they signed the
London Customs Convention, laying the foundation for the eventual
Benelux Economic Union, an important forerunner of the
EEC (later the
EU). ==Literature==