Roman Empire to Early Middle Ages (1 to 800) Christianization without coercion There is agreement among twenty-first century scholars that Christianization of the Roman Empire in its first three centuries did not happen by imposition. Christianization emerged naturally as the cumulative result of multiple individual decisions and behaviors. during each of the first three centuries AD|alt=this is a map showing how and where congregations formed in the first three centuries While enduring three centuries of on-again, off-again persecution, from differing levels of government ranging from local to imperial, Christianity had remained 'self-organized' and without central authority. In this manner, it reached an important
threshold of success between 150 and 250, when it moved from less than 50,000 adherents to over a million, and became self-sustaining and able to generate further growth. There was a significant rise in the absolute number of Christians in the third century.
Constantine and the goal of Christianization The Christianization of the
Roman Empire is frequently divided by scholars into the two phases of before and after the conversion of
Constantine in 312. Constantine did not support the suppression of paganism by force. He never engaged in a
purge, and there were no pagan martyrs during his reign. Pagans remained in important positions at his court. Constantine ruled for 31 years and despite personal animosity toward paganism, he never outlawed paganism. Making the adoption of Christianity beneficial was Constantine's primary approach to religion, and imperial favor was important to successful Christianization over the next century. Yet, Constantine did not institute many christianizing changes, and those measures he did enact did little to Christianize civic culture. According to historian Michelle Renee Salzman, there is no evidence to indicate that conversion of pagans through force was an accepted method of Christianization at any point in Late Antiquity. Evidence indicates all uses of imperial force concerning religion were aimed at heretics (who were already Christian) such as the
Donatists and the
Manichaeans and not at non-believers such as Jews or pagans. However, Constantine must have written the laws that threatened and menaced pagans who continued to practice sacrifice. The element of pagan culture most abhorrent to Christians was sacrifice, and altars used for it were routinely smashed. Christians were deeply offended by the blood of slaughtered victims as they were reminded of their own past sufferings associated with such altars. Richard Lim writes that "Putting an end to blood sacrifice ... thus became the singular goal of Christianization (Barnes 1984; Bradbury 1994, 1995)". There is no evidence that any of the horrific punishments included in the laws against sacrifice were ever enacted. There is no record of anyone being executed for violating religious laws before Tiberius II Constantine at the end of the sixth century (574–582). Still, Bradbury notes that the complete disappearance of public sacrifice by the mid-fourth century "in many towns and cities must be attributed to the atmosphere created by imperial and episcopal hostility".
Christianization with coercion under Justinian I The religious policy of the Eastern emperor Justinian I (527 to 565) reflected his conviction that a unified Empire presupposed unity of faith. Justinian's efforts at requiring and enforcing this have led
Anthony Kaldellis to write that Justinian is often seen as a tyrant and despot. Unlike Constantine, Justinian did purge the bureaucracy of those who disagreed with him. He sought to centralize imperial government, became increasingly autocratic, and according to the historian
Giovanni Mansi, "nothing could be done", not even in the Church, that was contrary to the emperor's will and command. In Kaldellis' estimation, "Few emperors had started so many wars or tried to enforce cultural and religious uniformity with such zeal".
Germanic tribes Christianization spread through the Roman Empire and neighboring empires in the next few centuries, converting most of the
Germanic barbarian peoples who would form the ethnic communities that would become the future nations of Europe. The earliest references to the Christianization of these tribes are in the writings of
Irenaeus (130–202),
Origen (185–253), and
Tertullian (
Adv. Jud. VII) (155–220).
Tacitus describes the nature of
German religion, and their understanding of the function of a king, as facilitating Christianization. Missionaries aimed at converting Germanic nobility first. Ties of fealty between German kings and their followers often produced mass conversions of entire tribes following their king. Afterwards, their societies began a gradual process of Christianization that took centuries, with some traces of earlier beliefs remaining. In all cases, Christianization meant "the Germanic conquerors lost their native languages. ...[or] the
syntax, the conceptual framework underlying the
lexicon, and most of the literary forms, were thoroughly latinized".
Saint Boniface led the effort in the mid-eighth century to organize churches in the region that would become modern
Germany. As ecclesiastical organization increased, so did the political unity of the Germanic Christians. By the year 962, when
Pope John XII anoints
King Otto I as
Holy Roman Emperor, "Germany and
Christendom had become one". This union lasted until dissolved by
Napoleon in 1806.
Franks The Franks first appear in the historical record in the 3rd century as a confederation of Germanic tribes living on the east bank of the lower Rhine River.
Clovis I was the first
king of the Franks to unite all of the
Frankish tribes under one ruler. The most likely date of his conversion to Catholicism is
Christmas Day, 508, following the
Battle of Tolbiac. He was baptized in
Rheims. The Frankish Kingdom became Christian over the next two centuries. Saxons went back and forth between rebellion and submission to the Franks for decades.
Charlemagne (r. 768–814) placed missionaries and courts across Saxony in hopes of pacifying the region, but Saxons rebelled again in 782 with disastrous losses for the Franks. In response, the Frankish King "enacted a variety of draconian measures" beginning with the
massacre at Verden in 782 when he ordered the decapitation of 4500 Saxon prisoners offering them baptism as an alternative to death. These events were followed by the severe legislation of the
Capitulatio de partibus Saxoniae in 785 which prescribes death to those that are disloyal to the king, harm Christian churches or its ministers, or practice pagan burial rites. His harsh methods of Christianization raised objections from his friends
Alcuin and
Paulinus of Aquileia. Charlemagne abolished the death penalty for paganism in 797.
Ireland Pope Celestine I (422–430) sent
Palladius to be the first bishop to the Irish in 431, and in 432,
St Patrick began his mission there. Scholars cite many questions (and scarce sources) concerning the next two hundred years. Relying largely on recent archaeological developments, Lorcan Harney has reported to the Royal Academy that the missionaries and traders who came to Ireland in the fifth to sixth centuries were not backed by any military force. Patrick and Palladius and other British and Gaulish missionaries aimed first at converting royal households. Patrick indicates in his
Confessio that safety depended upon it. Communities often followed their king en masse.
Great Britain Christianity likely reached Britain around 200 with archaeology indicating that it continued as a minority faith into fourth century. Thereafter, Irish missionaries led by Saint
Columba, based in
Iona (from 563), converted many
Picts. The
Christianisation of Anglo-Saxon England began in the late 6th century when the
Gregorian mission was launched, leading to the conversion of
Æthelberht of Kent around 600. After this, further kings converted such as
Eadwine of Deira around 628 and
Sigeberht of Essex around 653. Although the
traditional religion often regained royal support after the conversion of the first king, Christianity did nonetheless become dominant in England, with the last heathen Anglo-Saxon king
Arwald of Wihtwara being killed in battle in 686 and his two sons forcefully baptised and executed. Closely related
Nordic forms of paganism were introduced by Scandinavian settlers during the 9th and 10th centuries. Christianity was likely adopted within several generations, with the last potentially heathen king to rule in England being
Erik Bloodaxe, who died in 954. Suppression of paganism in England is first recorded as having taken place in the mid 7th century during the reign of
Eorcenberht of Kent and continued into the 11th century, with law codes prescribing punishments such as fines, fasting and execution. Not all Germanic cultural elements were suppressed however, with many blending with Christian ones and some continuing in folklore into the
modern period.
Italy Classicist J.H.D. Scourfield writes that Christianization in Italy in Late Antiquity is "most aptly described in terms of negotiation, accommodation, adaptation, [and] transformation". Christianization in Italy allowed for religious competition and cooperation, included syncretism both to and from pagans and Christians, and allowed secularism. In 529,
Benedict of Nursia established his first monastery at
Monte Cassino, Italy. He wrote the
Rule of Saint Benedict based on "pray and work". This "Rule" provided the foundation of the majority of the thousands of monasteries that spread across the continent of what is now modern day Europe, thereby becoming a major factor in the Christianization of Europe.
Greece Christianization was slower in Greece than in most other parts of the Roman empire. There are multiple theories of why, but there is no consensus. What is agreed upon is that, for a variety of reasons, Christianization did not take hold in Greece until the fourth and fifth centuries. Christians and pagans maintained a self imposed segregation throughout the period. Historian and archaeologist
Timothy E. Gregory has written in "The Survival of Paganism in Christian Greece: A Critical Essay" that J. M. Speiser successfully argued this was the situation throughout the country, and "rarely was there any significant contact, hostile or otherwise" between Christians and pagans in Greece. Gregory adds his view that "it is admirably clear that organized paganism survived well into the sixth century throughout the empire and in parts of Greece (at least in the
Mani) until the ninth century or later". Pagan ideas and forms persisted most in practices related to healing, death, and the family.
Albania Proto-Albanian speakers were Christianized under the
Latin sphere of influence, specifically in the 4th century AD, as shown by the basic
Christian terms in Albanian, which are of
Latin origin and entered Proto-Albanian before the
Gheg–
Tosk dialectal diversification. At the time of the
South Slavic incursion and the threat of ethnic turbulence in the Albanian-inhabited regions, the Christianization of the
Albanians had already been completed and it had apparently developed for Albanians as a further identity-forming feature alongside the ethnic-linguistic unity. Church administration, which was controlled by a thick network of Roman bishoprics, collapsed with the arrival of the Slavs. Between the early 7th century and the late 9th century the interior areas of the
Balkans were deprived of church administration, and Christianity might have survived only as a popular tradition on a reduced degree. Some Albanians living in the mountains, who were only partially affected by Romanization, probably sank back into the Classic Paganism. The reorganization of the Church as a cult institution in the region took a considerable amount of time. The Balkans were brought back into the Christian orbit only after the recovery of the
Byzantine Empire and through the activity of Byzantine missionaries. The earliest church vocabulary of
Middle Greek origin in Albanian dates to the 8th–9th centuries, at the time of the
Byzantine Iconoclasm, which was started by the Byzantine Emperor
Leo III the Isaurian. In 726 Leo III established
de jure the jurisdiction of the
Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople over the Balkans, as the Church and the State established an institution. The Eastern Church expanded its influence in the area along with the social and political developments. Between the 7th and 12th centuries a powerful network of cult institutions were revived completely covering the ecclesiastical administration of the entire present-day Albanian-speaking compact area. In particular an important role was played by the
Theme of Dyrrhachium and the
Archdiocese of Ohrid. Survived through the centuries, the Christian belief among Albanians became an important cultural element in their ethnic identity. Indeed, the lack of
Old Church Slavonic terms in Albanian Christian terminology shows that the missionary activities during the
Christianization of the Slavs did not involve Albanian-speakers. In a text compiled around the beginning of the 11th century in the
Old Bulgarian language, the Albanians are mentioned for the first time with their old ethnonym
Arbanasi as half-believers, a term which for Eastern Orthodox Christian Bulgarians meant Catholic Christian. The
Great Schism of 1054 involved Albania separating the region between Catholic Christianity in the north and Orthodox Christianity in the south. Regardless of the Christianization,
ancient paganism persisted among Albanians, and especially within the inaccessible and deep interior – where
Albanian folklore evolved over the centuries in a relatively isolated
tribal culture and society – it has continued to persist, or at most it was partially transformed by the Christian, and later Muslim and Marxist beliefs, that were either to be introduced by choice or imposed by force. Albanian traditions have been
orally transmitted through memory systems that have survived intact into modern times. The Albanian traditional customary law (
Kanun) has held a sacred – although secular – longstanding, unwavering and unchallenged authority with a cross-religious effectiveness over the Albanians, which is attributed to an earlier pagan code common to all the
Albanian tribes. Historically, the Christian clergy has vigorously fought, but without success, the
pagan rituals practiced by Albanians for
traditional feasts and particular events, especially the fire rituals (
Zjarri).
Caucasian Albania Most scholars agree that Christianity was officially adopted in
Caucasian Albania in AD 313 or AD 315 when
Gregory the Illuminator baptized the Albanian king and ordained the first bishop Tovmas, the founder of the Albanian church. It is highly probable that Christianity covered the whole of antique Caucasian Albania by the late fourth century. In his article "About the Dating of the Christianization of Caucasian Albania" historian of the Christian East, Aleksan H. Hakobyan, has written: The king of the country then was the founder of the
Arsacid dynasty of Albania
Vachagan I the Brave (but not his grandson
Urnayr), and the king of Armenia was
Tiridat III the Great, also Arsacid. As M. L. Chaumont established in 1969, the latter, with the help of Gregory the Illuminator, adopted the Christian faith at the state level in June 311, two months after the publication of the
Edict of Sardica "On Tolerance" by
Emperor Galerius (293–311). In 313, after the appearance of the
Edict of Milan, Tiridat attracted the younger allies of Armenia Iberia-Kartli, Albania-Aluank' and Lazika-Egerk' (Colchis) to the process of Christianization. In the first half of 315, Gregory the Illuminator baptized the Albanian king (who had arrived in Armenia) and ordained the first bishop Tovmas (the founder of the Albanian church, with the center in the capital Kapalak) for his country: he was from the city of
Satala in Lesser Armenia. Probably, at the same stage, Christianization covered the whole of antique Albania, i.e. territory north of the
Kura River, to the
Caspian Sea and the
Derbend Pass.
Armenia, Georgia, Ethiopia and Eritrea In 301,
Armenia became the first kingdom in history to adopt Christianity as an official state religion. The transformations taking place in these centuries of the Roman Empire had been slower to catch on in Caucasia. Indigenous writing did not begin until the fifth century, there was an absence of large cities, and many institutions such as monasticism did not exist in Caucasia until the seventh century. Scholarly consensus places the Christianization of the Armenian and Georgian elites in the first half of the fourth century, although Armenian tradition says Christianization began in the first century through the Apostles
Thaddeus and
Bartholomew. This is said to have eventually led to the conversion of the
Arsacid family, (the royal house of Armenia), through
St. Gregory the Illuminator in the early fourth century. Christianization took many generations and was not a uniform process. Byzantine historian Robert Thomson writes that it was not the officially established hierarchy of the church that spread Christianity in Armenia; "It was the unorganized activity of wandering holy men that brought about the Christianization of the populace at large". The most significant stage in this process was the development of a script for the native tongue. Scholars do not agree on the exact date of
Christianization of Georgia, but most assert the early 4th century when
Mirian III of the
Kingdom of Iberia (known locally as
Kartli) adopted Christianity. According to medieval
Georgian Chronicles, Christianization began with
Andrew the Apostle and culminated in the evangelization of Iberia through the efforts of a captive woman known in Iberian tradition as
Saint Nino in the fourth century. Fifth, 8th, and 12th century accounts of the conversion of Georgia reveal how pre-Christian practices were taken up and reinterpreted by Christian narrators. In 325, the
Kingdom of Aksum (Modern
Ethiopia and
Eritrea) became the second country to declare Christianity as its official state religion.
Iberia , one of the oldest churches in Spain|alt= photo of San Pedro de la Nave, one of the oldest churches in Spain
Hispania had become part of the Roman Republic in the third century BC. Christian communities can be found dating to the third century, and bishoprics had been created in
León,
Mérida and
Zaragoza by that same period. In AD 300 an ecclesiastical council held in
Elvira was attended by 20 bishops. With the end of persecution in 312, churches, baptistries, hospitals and episcopal palaces were erected in most major towns, and many landed aristocracy embraced the faith and converted sections of their villas into chapels. In 416, the Germanic
Visigoths crossed into Hispania as Roman allies. They converted to Arian Christianity shortly before 429. The Visigothic King
Sisebut came to the throne in 612 when the Roman emperor
Heraclius surrendered his Spanish holdings. Sisebut banished all Jews who would not submit to baptism. Roman historian Edmund Spenser Bouchier says 90,000 Hebrews were baptized while others fled to France or North Africa. This contradicted the traditional position of the Catholic Church on the Jews, and scholars refer to this shift as a "seismic moment" in Christianization.
Europe and Asia of the High and Late Middle Ages (800 to 1500) In Central and Eastern Europe of the 8th and 9th centuries, Christianization was an integral part of the political centralization of the new nations being formed. In Eastern Europe, the combination of Christianization and political centralization created what Peter Brown describes as, "specific micro-Christendoms".
Bulgaria,
Bohemia (which became
Czechoslovakia), the
Serbs and the
Croats, along with
Hungary, and
Poland, voluntarily joined the Western, Latin church, sometimes pressuring their people to follow. Full Christianization of the populace often took centuries to accomplish. Conversion began with local elites who wanted to convert because they gained prestige and power through matrimonial alliances and participation in imperial rituals. Christianization then spread from the center to the edges of society. Historian Ivo Štefan has written, "Although Christian authors often depicted the conversion of rulers as the triumph of the new faith, the reality was much more complex. Christianization of everyday life took centuries, with many non-Christian elements surviving in rural communities until the beginning of the modern era".
Language and literature In the Christianization process of Bohemia, Moravia and Slovakia territories, the two Byzantine missionary brothers
Saints Constantine-Cyril and Methodius played the key roles beginning in 863. They spent approximately 40 months in Great Moravia continuously translating texts and teaching students.
Cyril developed the
first Slavic alphabet and translated the gospel into the
Old Church Slavonic language. Old Church Slavonic became the first literary language of the Slavs and, eventually, the educational foundation for all Slavic nations. In 869 Methodius was consecrated as (arch)bishop of Pannonia and the Great Moravia regions.
Bulgaria Official Christianization began in 864/5 under
Khan Boris I (852– 889). Boris I determined that imposing Christianity was the answer to internal peace and external security. The decision was partly military, partly domestic, and partly to diminish the power of the Proto-Bulgarian nobility. A number of nobles reacted violently; 52 were executed. After prolonged negotiations with both Rome and Constantinople, an
autocephalous Bulgarian Orthodox Church was formed that used the newly created
Cyrillic script to make the Bulgarian language the language of the Church. After a series of victories in wars against the Byzantines led by
Symeon (893 to 927), the Byzantines recognized the
Bulgarian Patriarchate.
Serbia of
Serbia, from the late 9th century – one of the oldest artifacts of the Christianization of the Serbs|alt=photo of the Seal of prince Strojimir of the Principality of Serbia from the late 9th century – one of the oldest artifacts of the Christianization of the Serbs with delegation of Serbs|alt=photo of painting, by Skylitzes, showing a delegation of Croats and Serbs to Emperor Basil I The full conversion of the Slavs dates to the time of
Eastern Orthodox missionaries
Saints Cyril and Methodius during the reign of the Byzantine emperor
Basil I (r. 867–886). The first diocese of Serbia, the
Diocese of Ras, is mentioned in the ninth century. Serbs were baptized sometime before
Basil I, who was asked by the
Ragusians for help, sent imperial admiral
Nikita Orifas to
Knez Mutimir to aid in the war against the Saracens in 869. Serbia can certainly be seen as a Christian nation by 870.
Croatia According to
Constantine VII, Christianization of Croats began in the 7th century. The conversion of Croatia is said to have been completed by the time of Duke
Trpimir's death in 864. In 879, under duke
Branimir, Croatia received papal recognition as a state from
Pope John VIII.
Bohemia/Czech lands What was Bohemia forms much of the Czech Republic, comprising the central and western portions of the country. Significant missionary activity only took place after Charlemagne defeated the
Avar Khaganate several times at the end of the 8th century and beginning of the ninth centuries. The first Christian church of the Western and Eastern Slavs (known to written sources) was built in 828 by
Pribina (c. 800–861) ruler and Prince of the
Principality of Nitra. In 880, Pope John VIII issued the bull
Industriae Tuae, by which he set up the independent ecclesiastical province with Archbishop Methodius as its head. Relics withstood the fall of Great Moravia.
Poland '', by
Jan Matejko, 1888–89,
National Museum, Warsaw|alt=photo of a late nineteenth century painting by Jan Matejko depicting the introduction of Christianity to Poland through symbols such as a cross and a plow, baptism and reading According to historians Franciszek Longchamps de Bérier and Rafael Domingo: "A pre-Christian
Poland never existed. Poland entered history suddenly when some western lands inhabited by the Slavs embraced Christianity". The dynastic interests of the
Piasts produced the establishment of both church and state in Great Poland (
Greater Poland, also known as
"Wielkopolska" in Polish, is a historical region of west-central Poland. Its chief and largest city is Poznań.). The
"Baptism of Poland" () in 966, refers to the baptism of
Mieszko I, the first ruler. Mieszko's baptism was followed by the building of churches and the establishment of an ecclesiastical hierarchy. Mieszko saw baptism as a way of strengthening his hold on power, with the active support he could expect from the bishops, as well as a unifying force for the
Polish people.
Hungary , from the medieval codex Chronicon Pictum from the 14th century|alt=Image of the King Saint
Stephen I of Hungary, from the medieval codex Chronicon Pictum from the 14th century Around 952, the tribal chief
Gyula II of
Transylvania, visited
Constantinople and was baptized, bringing home with him Hierotheus who was designated
bishop of Turkia (Hungary). The conversion of Gyula at Constantinople and the missionary work of Bishop Hierotheus are depicted as leading directly to the court of
St. Stephen, the first Hungarian king, a Christian in a still mostly pagan country. Stephen suppressed rebellion, organized both the Hungarian State (with strong royal authority), and the church, by inviting missionaries, and suppressing paganism by making laws such as requiring people to attend church every Sunday. Soon the Hungarian Kingdom had two archbishops and 8 bishops, and a defined state structure with province governors that answered to the King. Saint Stephen was the first Hungarian monarch elevated to sainthood for his Christian characteristics and not because he suffered a martyr's death. Hungarian Christianity and the kingdom's ecclesiastical and temporal administrations consolidated towards the end of the 11th century.
Scandinavia (Sweden, Norway, Denmark, and Iceland) Christianization of Scandinavia is divided into two stages by Professor of medieval archaeology
Alexandra Sanmark. Stage 1 involves missionaries who arrived in pagan territory in the 800s, on their own, without secular support. Historian
Florence Harmer writes "Between A.D. 960 and 1008 three Scandinavian kings were converted to Christianity". The Danish King
Harald Gormsen (Bluetooth) was baptized c. 960. The conversion of Norway was begun by
Hákon Aðalsteinsfostri between 935 and 961, but the wide-scale conversion of this kingdom was undertaken by King
Olaf Tryggvason in c. 995. In Sweden, King
Olof Erikson Skötkonung accepted Christianity around 1000. According to Peter Brown, Scandinavians adopted Christianity of their own accord c.1000.
Anders Winroth explains that Iceland became the model for the institutional conversion of the rest of Scandinavia after AD 1000. Winroth demonstrates that Scandinavians were not passive recipients of the new religion, but converted to Christianity because it was in their political, economic, and cultural interests to do so. Stage 2 began when a secular ruler took charge of Christianization in their territory, and ended when a defined and organized ecclesiastical network was established. By 1350, Scandinavia was an integral part of Western Christendom.
Romania In the last two decades of the 9th century, missionaries
Clement and Naum, (who were disciples of the brothers Cyril and Methodius), had arrived in the region spreading the Cyrillic alphabet. By the 10th century when the Bulgarian Tsars extended their territory to include
Transylvania, they were able to impose the Bulgarian church model and its Slavic language without opposition. Nearly all Romanian words concerning Christian faith have Latin roots (from the early centuries of Roman occupation), while words regarding the organization of the church are Slavonic. Romanian historian
Ioan-Aurel Pop writes "Christian fervor and the massive conversion to Christianity among the Slavs may have led to the canonic conversion of the last heathen, or ecclesiastically unorganized, Romanian islands". For Romanians, the church model was "overwhelming, omnipresent, putting pressure on the Romanians and often accompanied by a political element". This ecclesiastical and political tradition continued until the 19th century.
Northern Crusades destroys the idol of
Slavic god
Svantevit at
Arkona in a painting by Laurits Tuxen|alt= photo of painting by Laurits Tuxen depicting the Bishop Absalon toppling the god Svantevit at Arkona From before the days of
Charlemagne (747–814), the fierce pagan tribes east of the
Baltic Sea lived on the physical frontiers of Christendom in what has today become
Estonia,
Latvia,
Lithuania and the
Kaliningrad oblast (Prussia). They survived largely by raiding – stealing crucial resources, killing, and enslaving captives – from the countries that surrounded them including Denmark, Prussia, Germany and Poland. One result of the northern crusades, according to historian Aiden Lilienfeld, was that: "[ . . . ] The conquering forces of the Northern Crusades brought more territory under German control than nearly any other concerted expansion in the history of the
Holy Roman Empire"—emphasizing that duty to the faith could often go hand-in-hand, from the perspective of prospective crusaders, with political and material benefit. Combining their personal priorities with a need to permanently stop the raiding, they requested permission to subdue the Baltic instead. In 1147, Eugenius'
Divini dispensatione, gave the eastern nobles full crusade indulgences to do so. The Northern, (or Baltic), Crusades followed, taking place, off and on, with and without papal support, from 1147 to 1316. Acquisition of territory and wealth was a major aim—perhaps
the major aim—in undertaking military action, on the part of the Christian rulers west of the Oder, and clerics such as
Helmond of Bosau complained that the nobles' demands for tribute hindered the process of conversion; on the other hand, the Christianization of the locals—and the putative rewards in the hereafter to ensue from its success—was a powerful motivator as well. In some cases, voluntary conversion of the local aristocracy—usually followed by the populace, under this influence—was recognized, and stayed the hand of war; in others, naked ambition and greed for material wealth resulted in military actions against ostensibly already-converted peoples. In most cases, conversion was ultimately the result of conquest. According to Fonnesberg-Schmidt: "While the theologians maintained that conversion should be voluntary, there was a widespread pragmatic acceptance of conversion obtained through political pressure or military coercion". There were often severe consequences for populations that chose to resist, though in some instances local rulers were able to successfully plead a case for withholding attempts at the forcible Christianization of the populace—both ruler and crusaders cognizant of the risk of armed rebellion (and hence disruption of profitable trade or tribute), were such attempts to proceed.
Lithuania The last of the Baltic crusades was the conflict between the mostly German
Teutonic Order and
Lithuania in the far northeastern reaches of Europe. Lithuania is sometimes described as "the last pagan nation in medieval Europe". The Teutonic Order was a mostly German crusading organization from the Christian Holy Land founded by members of the
Knights Hospitaller. Medieval historian Aiden Lilienfeld says "In 1226, however, the
Duke of Mazovia ... granted the Order territory in eastern Prussia in exchange for help in subjugating pagan Baltic peoples". Over the course of the next 200 years, the Order expanded its territory to cover much of the eastern Baltic coast. In 1384,
Jadwiga, the ten year old daughter of
Louis the Great, King of Hungary and Poland and his wife
Elizabeth of Bosnia, was crowned
king of Poland. One year later, a marriage was arranged between her and the
Grand Duke Jogaila of Lithuania. Duke Jogaila was baptized, married, and crowned king in 1386, thus beginning the 400 year shared history of Poland and Lithuania. This would seem to obviate the need for religious crusade, yet activity against local populations, particularly the
Samogitian peoples of the eastern Baltic, continued in a frequently brutal manner. The Teutonic Order eventually fell to Poland-Lithuania in 1525. Lilienfeld says "After this, the Order's territory was divided between Poland-Lithuania and the Hohenzollern dynasty of Brandenburg, putting an end to the monastic state and the formal Northern Crusade. All of the Order's most powerful cities–Danzig (Gdansk), Elbing (Elblag), Marienburg (Malbork), and Braunsberg (Braniewo)–now fall within Poland in the 21st century, except for Koenigsburg (Kaliningrad) in Russia."
Kievan Rus' |alt=photo of a painting by Klavdiy Lebedev of mass baptism of the Kievens in a river Around 978,
Vladimir (978–1015), the son of
Sviatoslav, seized power in
Kiev. Slavic historian Ivo Štefan writes that, Vladimir examined monotheism for himself, and "Around that same time, Vladimir conquered Cherson in the Crimea, where, according to the
Tale of Bygone Years, he was baptized". After returning to Kiev, the same text describes Vladimir as unleashing "a systematic destruction of pagan idols and the construction of Christian churches in their place". ans'', a fresco by
Viktor Vasnetsov|alt=another photo of a painting by Viktor Vasnetsov of mass baptism of Kiev's inside a chapel Bohemia, Poland, and Hungary had become part of western Latin Christianity, while the Rus' adopted Christianity from Byzantium, leading them down a different path. A specific form of Rus' Christianity formed quickly. The Rus' dukes maintained exclusive control of the church which was financially dependent upon them. The prince appointed the clergy to positions in government service; satisfied their material needs; determined who would fill the higher ecclesiastical positions; and directed the synods of bishops in the Kievan metropolitanate. This new Christian religious structure was imposed upon the socio-political and economic fabric of the land by the authority of the state's rulers. According to Andrzej Poppe, Slavic historian, it is fully justifiable to call the Church of Rus' a state church. The Church strengthened the authority of the Prince, and helped to justifiy the expansion of Kievan empire into new territories through missionary activity. Christian clergy translated religious texts into local vernacular language which introduced literacy to all members of the princely dynasty, including women and the general populace. Monasteries of the twelfth century became key spiritual, intellectual, art, and craft centers. Under Vladimir's son Yaroslav I the Wise (1016–1018, 1019–1054), a building and cultural boom took place. The Church of Rus' gradually developed into an independent political force in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries.
Finland conquering
Häme and the construction of
Häme Castle According to the archaeological finds,
Christianity gained a foothold in Finland during the 11th century. According to the very few written documents that have survived, the church in Finland was still in its early development in the 12th century. Later medieval legends from late 13th century describe Swedish attempts to
conquer and Christianize Finland sometime in the mid-1150s. Danish troops raided the Finnish coastline several times between 1191 and 1202. The
Finnish tribes were able to wage war and engage in trade, but over time, were increasingly drawn into
Latin Christendom. The Catholic church was strengthened with growing Swedish influence in the 12th century and the Finnish "crusade" of
Birger Jarl in the 13th century. In the early 13th century,
Bishop Thomas became the first known
bishop of Finland. There were several secular powers who aimed to bring the Finnish tribes under their rule. These were Sweden, Denmark, the
Republic of Novgorod in northwestern Russia, and probably the German crusading orders as well. Finns had their own chiefs, but most probably no central authority. At the time there can be seen three cultural areas or tribes in Finland:
Finns,
Tavastians and
Karelians. Russian chronicles indicate there were several
conflicts between Novgorod and the Finnic tribes from the 11th or 12th century to the early 13th century. The influence of
Russian Orthodoxy was extended to the area around
Lake Onega and
Lake Ladoga and the
Häme (
Tavastians) there were converted.
Iberian Reconquista by 19th-century painter
Francisco de Paula Van Halen|alt=photo of a painting by 19th-century painter Francisco de Paula Van Halen depicting the Battle of Navas de Tolosa Between 711 and 718, the
Iberian Peninsula had been conquered by
Muslims in the
Umayyad conquest. The centuries long military struggle to reclaim the peninsula from Muslim rule, called the
Reconquista, took place until the Christian Kingdoms, that would later become Spain and Portugal, reconquered the
Moorish Al-Ándalus in 1492. (The
Battle of Covadonga in 722 is seen as the beginning of Reconquista and the
annexation of Grenada in 1492 is its end).
Isabel and
Ferdinand married in October 1469 thereby uniting Spain with themselves as its first royalty. In 1478, they established the
Spanish Inquisition, telling the Pope it was needed to find heretics – specifically Jews pretending to be Christian so they could spy for Moslems who wanted their territory back. In actuality, it served state interests and consolidated power in the monarchy. The Spanish inquisition was originally authorized by the Pope, yet the initial inquisitors proved so severe that the Pope almost immediately opposed it and attempted to shut it down without success. Ferdinand is said to have pressured the Pope, and in October 1483, a papal bull conceded control of the inquisition to the Spanish crown. According to Spanish historian José Casanova, the Spanish inquisition became the first truly national, unified and centralized state institution. == Early colonialism (1500s–1700s) ==