Most of the Tibeto-Burman languages are spoken in remote mountain areas, which has hampered their study. Many lack a written standard. It is generally easier to identify a language as Tibeto-Burman than to determine its precise relationship with other languages of the group. The subgroupings that have been established with certainty number several dozen, ranging from well-studied groups of dozens of languages with millions of speakers to several
isolates, some only discovered in the 21st century but in danger of extinction. These subgroups are here surveyed on a geographical basis.
Southeast Asia and southwest China The southernmost group is the
Karen languages, spoken by three million people on both sides of the Burma–Thailand border. They differ from all other Tibeto-Burman languages (except Bai) in having a
subject–verb–object word order, attributed to contact with
Tai–Kadai and
Austroasiatic languages. The most widely spoken Tibeto-Burman language is
Burmese, the national language of Myanmar, with over 32 million speakers and a literary tradition dating from the early 12th century. It is one of the
Lolo-Burmese languages, an intensively studied and well-defined group comprising approximately 100 languages spoken in Myanmar and the highlands of Thailand, Laos, Vietnam, and
southwest China. Major languages include the
Loloish languages, with two million speakers in western
Sichuan and northern
Yunnan, the
Akha language and
Hani languages, with two million speakers in southern Yunnan, eastern Myanmar, Laos and Vietnam, and
Lisu and
Lahu in Yunnan, northern Myanmar and northern Thailand. All languages of the Loloish subgroup show significant Austroasiatic influence. The
Pai-lang songs, transcribed in Chinese characters in the 1st century, appear to record words from a Lolo-Burmese language, but arranged in Chinese order. The Tibeto-Burman languages of south-west China have been heavily influenced by Chinese over a long period, leaving their affiliations difficult to determine. The grouping of the
Bai language, with one million speakers in Yunnan, is particularly controversial, with some workers suggesting that it is a sister language to Chinese. The
Naxi language of northern Yunnan is usually included in Lolo-Burmese, though other scholars prefer to leave it unclassified. The hills of northwestern Sichuan are home to the small
Qiangic and
Rgyalrongic groups of languages, which preserve many archaic features. The most easterly Tibeto-Burman language is
Tujia, spoken in the
Wuling Mountains on the borders of Hunan, Hubei, Guizhou and Chongqing. Two historical languages are believed to be Tibeto-Burman, but their precise affiliation is uncertain. The
Pyu language of central Myanmar in the first centuries is known from inscriptions using a variant of the
Gupta script. The
Tangut language of the 12th century
Western Xia of northern China is preserved in numerous texts written in the Chinese-inspired
Tangut script.
Tibet and South Asia Over eight million people in the
Tibetan Plateau and neighbouring areas in
Baltistan,
Ladakh,
Nepal,
Sikkim and
Bhutan speak one of several related
Tibetic languages. There is an extensive literature in
Classical Tibetan dating from the 8th century. The Tibetic languages are usually grouped with the smaller
East Bodish languages of Bhutan and
Arunachal Pradesh as the
Bodish group. Many diverse Tibeto-Burman languages are spoken on the southern slopes of the Himalayas. Sizable groups that have been identified are the
West Himalayish languages of
Himachal Pradesh and western Nepal, the
Tamangic languages of western Nepal, including
Tamang with one million speakers, and the
Kiranti languages of eastern Nepal. The remaining groups are small, with several isolates. The
Newar language (Nepal Bhasa) of central Nepal has a million speakers and literature dating from the 12th century, and nearly a million people speak
Magaric languages, but the rest have small speech communities. Other isolates and small groups in Nepal are
Dura,
Raji–Raute,
Chepangic and
Dhimalish.
Lepcha is spoken in an area from eastern Nepal to western Bhutan. Most of the languages of Bhutan are Bodish, but it also has three small isolates,
'Ole ("Black Mountain Monpa"),
Lhokpu and
Gongduk and a larger community of speakers of
Tshangla. The
Tani languages include most of the Tibeto-Burman languages of Arunachal Pradesh and adjacent areas of Tibet. The remaining languages of Arunachal Pradesh are much more diverse, belonging to the small
Siangic,
Kho-Bwa (or Kamengic),
Hruso,
Miju and
Digaro languages (or Mishmic) groups. These groups have relatively little Tibeto-Burman vocabulary, and Bench and Post dispute their inclusion in Sino-Tibetan. The greatest variety of languages and subgroups is found in the highlands stretching from northern Myanmar to northeast India. Northern Myanmar is home to the small
Nungish group, as well as the
Jingpho–Luish languages, including
Jingpho with nearly a million speakers. The Brahmaputran or
Sal languages include at least the
Boro–Garo and
Konyak languages, spoken in an area stretching from northern Myanmar through the Indian states of
Nagaland,
Meghalaya, and
Tripura, and are often considered to include the Jingpho–Luish group. The border highlands of
Nagaland,
Manipur and western Myanmar are home to the small
Ao,
Angami–Pochuri,
Tangkhulic, and
Zeme groups of languages, as well as the
Karbi language.
Meithei, the main language of Manipur with 1.4 million speakers, is sometimes linked with the 50 or so
Kuki-Chin languages are spoken in
Mizoram and the
Chin State of Myanmar. The
Mru language is spoken by a small group in the
Chittagong Hill Tracts between Bangladesh and Myanmar. ==Classification==