Pre-contact to 1900 Before colonization, the Oʼodham migrated along a north–south axis in a "two village" system, rotating between summer and winter settlements. These migrations formed the foundation of their subsistence economies and enabled religious pilgrimages. This pattern continued throughout Apache, Spanish, and American expansion, but shifted with the re-drawing of boundaries that followed the Mexican–American War. Unlike aboriginal groups along the
U.S.–Canada border, the Tohono Oʼodham were not offered dual citizenship when the U.S. drew a border across their lands in 1853 by the
Gadsden Purchase. The
Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo did not specify the rights of the Oʼodham to cross the international border. The population was split between Mexico and the U.S., but after the treaty the U.S. government guaranteed that Oʼodham freedom of movement would be protected. For decades, members of the nation continued to move freely across the international border. Throughout this time, tribal members traveled and migrated to work, participate in religious ceremonies, keep medical appointments in Sells, and visit relatives. The Oʼodham were deliberate in attending their religious festivals, and left their employers for two to four weeks to travel to Magdalena, Sonora. Oʼodham labor was so valued that employers began to drive their Oʼodham employees to the festivals rather than lose 4–8 days of labor while tribal members traveled by wagon. The disparities in wealth between the two sides also led to cultural shifts. The traditional practice of lending between Oʼodham decreased as many Arizona Oʼodham felt that those on the Mexican side would not be able to pay loans back. During
WWI concerns were raised about the proximity of the Oʼodham to the border, but the U.S. government ignored requests for additional military presence, and trans-border smuggling thrived in the 1910s and 1920s. In 1977, the
Los Angeles Times reported that Mexican Oʼodham were taking advantage of medical facilities and welfare checks on the Arizona side of the border. Many tribal members felt these promises were not guaranteed. At the end of the decade, Oʼodham on the Mexican side of the border wrote an "open letter" to Oʼodham on the American side. In it they wrote: "our human rights and aboriginal rights have slowly been violated or disappeared in Mexico." In 2003 the Nation hosted a Congressional hearing on illegal activity on tribal lands. In the hearing tribal leaders and law enforcement officers testified about "incidents of cross-border violence, and even incursions by Mexican military personnel in support of drug smugglers." Along with the cross-border violence, tribal members continued to experience other social and legal consequences from the border. Tribal members born in Mexico or who had insufficient documentation to prove U.S. birth or residency found themselves trapped in a remote corner of Mexico with no access to the tribal centers only tens of miles away. In 2001, a bill was proposed that would give citizenship to all Tohono Oʼodham, but it was forgotten in the aftermath of 9/11. Opponents of granting U.S. citizenship to all enrolled members of the Nation say that many births on the reservation have been informally recorded and the records are susceptible to easy alteration or falsification. Oʼodham can cross the border with Tribal Identification Cards, but these can be denied at the border and legal documentation on the reservation is poor. Separation from family members and detainment are possibilities for Oʼodham crossing into the United States. Citing the impact it would have on wildlife and on the tribe's members, Tohono Oʼodham tribal leaders made a series of official statements opposing
President Donald Trump's plan to
build a wall along the U.S.–Mexico border. While the 1986 Tohono Oʼodham constitution gives the tribe sovereignty over their territory, this is nonetheless subject to the plenary power of Congress. About 2,000 members live in Mexico, and a wall would physically separate them from members in the U.S. Most of the 25,000 Tohono Oʼodham today live in southern
Arizona, but several thousand, many related by kinship, live in northern
Sonora, Mexico. Many tribal members still make an annual pilgrimage to San Xavier del Bac and
Magdalena, Sonora, during
St. Francis festivities to commemorate
St. Francis Xavier and St.
Francis of Assisi, founder of the Franciscan Order.
Integrated fixed towers Integrated fixed towers (IFTs) are solar-powered structures that integrate high technology, such as infrared and video machinery, to provide long-range, 360-degree, all-weather surveillance along the border. The proposed layout and size of the IFTs is said to range between 120 and 180 feet high, with each tower having its own equipment such as generators, propane tanks, and equipment shelters. The lot size of each tower varies between 2,500 square feet and 25,600 square feet, plus a fence that encompasses up to 10,000 feet. The radio technology of the tower permits the machine to be able to detect movement as far as from a 9.3-mile radius and vehicles from an 18.6 mile radius, while the long-range camera allows for video footage from 13.5 miles away. This contract gave Elbit jurisdiction to implement these structures at an unknown number of sites at anonymous locations and the power for both the company and Border Patrol to deeply monitor the border. The implementation of these towers will aid Border Patrol in monitoring illegal crossings and suspicious activity that occurs near the border. Although the towers would benefit Border Patrol in controlling illegal activities, for the Tohono Oʼodham nation, the integration of these structures will result in further territorial disputes and invasion of privacy. The rapidly increasing surveillance and security in the borderlands has instilled fear within Indigenous communities. IFTs have begun to interfere with the Tohono Oʼodham's spiritual rituals and daily routines. Tribes such as the Tohono Oʼodham are no longer free to cross the border to visit their families or explore outside their homes without risking scrutiny by agents. Even with set boundaries and size guidelines for the towers, the IFTs have exceeded the established range and are beginning to occupy parts of Oʼodham territory. Moreover, the growing number of towers has brought increased numbers of Border Patrol agents: 1,500 positioned in three districts that control the reservation. ==Administration==