TOP500

. In the early 1990s, a new definition of supercomputer was needed to produce meaningful statistics. After experimenting with metrics based on processor count in 1992, the idea arose at the University of Mannheim to use a detailed listing of installed systems as the basis. In early 1993, Jack Dongarra was persuaded to join the project with his LINPACK benchmarks. A first test version was produced in May 1993, partly based on data available on the Internet, including the following sources: • "List of the World's Most Powerful Computing Sites" maintained by Gunter Ahrendt • David Kahaner, the director of the Asian Technology Information Program (ATIP); published a report in 1992, titled "Kahaner Report on Supercomputer in Japan" of 187.6593 PFLOPS. For comparison, this is over 1,432,513 times faster than the Connection Machine CM-5/1024 (1,024 cores), which was the fastest system in November 1993 (twenty-five years prior) with an Rpeak of 131.0 GFLOPS. == Architecture and operating systems ==

While Intel, or at least the x86-64 CPU architecture has previously dominated the supercomputer list, by now AMD has more systems using that same architecture on top10, including 1st and 2nd place. And Microsoft Azure has 8 systems on top100, thereof only two with Intel CPUs, including though its most performant by far in 4th place (previously 3rd place). AMDs CPUs are usually coupled with AMD's GPU accelerators, while Intel's CPUs have historically been very often coupled with NVidia's GPU, though current Intel's third place (previously 2nd place) system notably uses Intel Data Center GPU Max. Arm-based system are also notable on the list in 4th, 7th (Fugaku, previously nr. 1) and 8th place and in total at least 23 not just from Fujitsu that introduced Arm-based the top spot; Nvidia has others with their "Superchip" CPU, not just GPUs. , all supercomputers on TOP500 are 64-bit supercomputers, mostly based on CPUs with the x86-64 instruction set architecture, 384 of which are Intel EMT64-based and 101 of which are AMD AMD64-based, with the latter including the top eight supercomputers. 15 other supercomputers are all based on RISC architectures, including six based on ARM64 and seven based on the Power ISA used by IBM Power microprocessors. In recent years, heterogeneous computing has dominated the TOP500, mostly using Nvidia's graphics processing units (GPUs) or Intel's x86-based Xeon Phi as coprocessors. This is because of better performance per watt ratios and higher absolute performance. AMD GPUs have taken the top 1 and displaced Nvidia in top 10 part of the list. The recent exceptions include the aforementioned Fugaku, Sunway TaihuLight, and K computer. Tianhe-2A is also an interesting exception, as US sanctions prevented use of Xeon Phi; instead, it was upgraded to use the Chinese-designed Matrix-2000 accelerators. Two computers which first appeared on the list in 2018 were based on architectures new to the TOP500. One was a new x86-64 microarchitecture from Chinese manufacturer Sugon, using Hygon Dhyana CPUs (these resulted from a collaboration with AMD, and are a minor variant of Zen-based AMD EPYC) and was ranked 38th, now 117th, and the other was the first ARM-based computer on the list using Cavium ThunderX2 CPUs. Before the ascendancy of 32-bit x86 and later 64-bit x86-64 in the early 2000s, a variety of RISC processor families made up most TOP500 supercomputers, including SPARC, MIPS, PA-RISC, and Alpha. All the fastest supercomputers since the Earth Simulator supercomputer (gained top spot in 2002, kept it for 2 and a half years until June 2004, was decommissioned in 2009; though other non-Linux on the list for longer) have used operating systems based on Linux. , all the listed supercomputers use an operating system based on the Linux kernel. Since November 2015, no computer on the list runs Windows (while Microsoft reappeared on the list in 2021 with Ubuntu based on Linux). In November 2014, Windows Azure cloud computer was no longer on the list of fastest supercomputers (its best rank was 165th in 2012), leaving the Shanghai Supercomputer Center's Magic Cube as the only Windows-based supercomputer on the list, until it also dropped off the list. It was ranked 436th in its last appearance on the list released in June 2015, while its best rank was 11th in 2008. There are no longer any Mac OS computers on the list. It had at most five such systems at a time, one more than the Windows systems that came later, while the total performance share for Windows was higher. Their relative performance share of the whole list was however similar, and never high for either. In 2004, the System X supercomputer based on Mac OS X (Xserve, with 2,200 PowerPC 970 processors) once ranked 7th place. It has been well over a decade since MIPS systems dropped entirely off the list though the Gyoukou supercomputer that jumped to 4th place in November 2017 had a MIPS-based design as a small part of the coprocessors. Use of 2,048-core coprocessors (plus 8× 6-core MIPS, for each, that "no longer require to rely on an external Intel Xeon E5 host processor") made the supercomputer much more energy efficient than the other top 10 (i.e. it was 5th on Green500 and other such ZettaScaler-2.2-based systems take first three spots). At 19.86 million cores, it was by far the largest system by core-count, with almost double that of the then-best manycore system, the Chinese Sunway TaihuLight. == TOP500 ==

, the number one supercomputer is El Capitan, the leader on Green500 is KAIROS, a Bull Sequana XH3000 system using the Nvidia Grace Hopper GH200 Superchip. EuroHPC's JUPITER became Europe's first system to reach the exascale milestone. In June 2022, the top 4 systems of Graph500 used both AMD CPUs and AMD accelerators. After an upgrade, for the 56th TOP500 in November 2020, Summit, a previously fastest supercomputer, is currently highest-ranked IBM-made supercomputer; with IBM POWER9 CPUs. Sequoia became the last IBM Blue Gene/Q model to drop completely off the list; it had been ranked 10th on the 52nd list (and 1st on the June 2012, 41st list, after an upgrade). Microsoft is back on the TOP500 list with six Microsoft Azure instances (that use/are benchmarked with Ubuntu, so all the supercomputers are still Linux-based), with CPUs and GPUs from same vendors, the fastest one currently 11th, and another older/slower previously made 10th. And Amazon with one AWS instance currently ranked 64th (it was previously ranked 40th). The number of Arm-based supercomputers is 6; currently all Arm-based supercomputers use the same Fujitsu CPU as in the number 2 system, with the next one previously ranked 13th, now 25th. 1.5 petaflops (Rmax). --> Legend: • RankPosition within the TOP500 ranking. In the TOP500 list table, the computers are ordered first by their Rmax value. In the case of equal performances (Rmax value) for different computers, the order is by Rpeak. For sites that have the same computer, the order is by memory size and then alphabetically. • RmaxThe highest score measured using the LINPACK benchmarks suite. This is the number that is used to rank the computers. Measured in quadrillions of 64-bit floating point operations per second, i.e., petaFLOPS. • RpeakThis is the theoretical peak performance of the system. Computed in petaFLOPS. • NameSome supercomputers are unique, at least on its location, and are thus named by their owner. • ModelThe computing platform as it is marketed. • ProcessorThe instruction set architecture or processor microarchitecture, alongside GPU and accelerators when available. • InterconnectThe interconnect between computing nodes. InfiniBand is most used (38%) by performance share, while Gigabit Ethernet is most used (54%) by number of computers. • ManufacturerThe manufacturer of the platform and hardware. • SiteThe name of the facility operating the supercomputer. • CountryThe country in which the computer is located. • YearThe year of installation or last major update. • Operating systemThe operating system that the computer uses. == Top countries ==

Numbers below represent the number of computers in the TOP500 that are in each of the listed countries or territories. , United States has the most supercomputers on the list, with 171 machines. The United States has the highest aggregate computational power at 6,626 Petaflops Rmax with Japan second (1,283 Pflop/s) and Germany third (1,129 Pflop/s). == Other rankings ==

Fastest supercomputer in TOP500 by country () Systems ranked • HPE Cray El Capitan (Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory , November 2024Present) • HPE Cray Frontier (Oak Ridge National Laboratory , June 2022November 2024) • Supercomputer Fugaku (Riken Center for Computational Science , June 2020June 2022) • IBM Summit (Oak Ridge National Laboratory , June 2018June 2020) • NRCPC Sunway TaihuLight (National Supercomputing Center in Wuxi , June 2016November 2017) • NUDT Tianhe-2A (National Supercomputing Center of Guangzhou , June 2013June 2016) • Cray Titan (Oak Ridge National Laboratory , November 2012June 2013) • IBM Sequoia Blue Gene/Q (Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory , June 2012November 2012) • Fujitsu K computer (Riken Advanced Institute for Computational Science , June 2011June 2012) • NUDT Tianhe-1A (National Supercomputing Center of Tianjin , November 2010June 2011) • Cray Jaguar (Oak Ridge National Laboratory , November 2009November 2010) • IBM Roadrunner (Los Alamos National Laboratory , June 2008November 2009) • IBM Blue Gene/L (Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory , November 2004June 2008) • NEC Earth Simulator (Earth Simulator Center , June 2002November 2004) • IBM ASCI White (Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory , November 2000June 2002) • Intel ASCI Red (Sandia National Laboratories , June 1997November 2000) • Hitachi CP-PACS (University of Tsukuba , November 1996June 1997) • Hitachi SR2201 (University of Tokyo , June 1996November 1996) • Fujitsu Numerical Wind Tunnel (National Aerospace Laboratory of Japan , November 1994June 1996) • Intel Paragon XP/S140 (Sandia National Laboratories , June 1994November 1994) • Fujitsu Numerical Wind Tunnel (National Aerospace Laboratory of Japan , November 1993June 1994) • TMC CM-5 (Los Alamos National Laboratory , June 1993November 1993) Additional statistics By number of systems : Note: All operating systems of the TOP500 systems are Linux-family based, but Linux above is generic Linux. El Capitan is the system with the most CPU cores (11,340,000). El Capitan has the most GPU/accelerator cores (10,260,000). Aurora is the system with the greatest power consumption with 38,698 kilowatts. == New developments in supercomputing ==

In November 2014, it was announced that the United States was developing two new supercomputers to exceed China's Tianhe-2 in its place as world's fastest supercomputer. The two computers, Sierra and Summit, will each exceed Tianhe-2's 55 petaflops peak. Summit, the more powerful of the two, will deliver 150–300 petaflops peak. On 10 April 2015, US government agencies banned selling chips, from Nvidia to supercomputing centers in China as "acting contrary to the national security ... interests of the United States"; and Intel Corporation from providing Xeon chips to China due to their use, according to the US, in researching nuclear weaponsresearch to which US export control law bans US companies from contributing"The Department of Commerce refused, saying it was concerned about nuclear research being done with the machine." On 29 July 2015, President Obama signed an executive order creating a National Strategic Computing Initiative calling for the accelerated development of an exascale (1000 petaflops) system and funding research into post-semiconductor computing. In June 2016, Japanese firm Fujitsu announced at the International Supercomputing Conference that its future exascale supercomputer will feature processors of its own design that implement the ARMv8 architecture. The Flagship2020 program, by Fujitsu for RIKEN plans to break the exaflops barrier by 2020 through the Fugaku supercomputer, (and "it looks like China and France have a chance to do so and that the United States is contentfor the moment at leastto wait until 2023 to break through the exaflops barrier." In June 2016, Sunway TaihuLight became the No. 1 system with 93 petaflops (PFLOPS) on the Linpack benchmark. In November 2016, Piz Daint was upgraded, moving it from 8th to 3rd, leaving the US with no systems under the TOP3 for the 2nd time. Inspur, based out of Jinan, China, is one of the largest HPC system manufacturers. , Inspur has become the third manufacturer to have manufactured a 64-way systema record that has previously been held by IBM and HP. The company has registered over $10B in revenue and has provided a number of systems to countries such as Sudan, Zimbabwe, Saudi Arabia and Venezuela. Inspur was also a major technology partner behind both the Tianhe-2 and Taihu supercomputers, occupying the top 2 positions of the TOP500 list up until November 2017. Inspur and Supermicro released a few platforms aimed at HPC using GPU such as SR-AI and AGX-2 in May 2017. In June 2018, Summit, an IBM-built system at the Oak Ridge National Laboratory (ORNL) in Tennessee, US, took the No. 1 spot with a performance of 122.3 petaflops (PFLOPS), and Sierra, a very similar system at the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, CA, US took #3. These systems also took the first two spots on the HPCG benchmark. Due to Summit and Sierra, the US took back the lead as consumer of HPC performance with 38.2% of the overall installed performance while China was second with 29.1% of the overall installed performance. For the first time ever, the leading HPC manufacturer was not a US company. Lenovo took the lead with 23.8% of systems installed. It is followed by HPE with 15.8%, Inspur with 13.6%, Cray with 11.2%, and Sugon with 11%. On 18 March 2019, the United States Department of Energy and Intel announced the first exaFLOPS supercomputer would be operational at Argonne National Laboratory by the end of 2021. The computer, named Aurora, was delivered to Argonne by Intel and Cray. On 7 May 2019, The U.S. Department of Energy announced a contract with Cray to build the "Frontier" supercomputer at Oak Ridge National Laboratory. Frontier, originally anticipated to be operational in 2021, was projected to be the world's most powerful computer, with a peak performance of greater than 1.5 exaflops. Since June 2019, all TOP500 systems deliver one petaflops or more on the High Performance Linpack (HPL) benchmark, with the entry level to the list now at 1.022 petaflops. In May 2022, the Frontier supercomputer broke the exascale barrier, completing more than a quintillion 64-bit floating point arithmetic calculations per second. Frontier clocked in at approximately 1.1 exaflops, beating out the previous record-holder, Fugaku. In June 2024, Aurora was the second computer on the TOP500 to post an exascale Rmax value, at 1.012 exaflops. Since then, Frontier has been dethroned by El Capitan, hosted at Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, with an HPL score of 1.742 exaflops. == Large machines not on the list ==

Some major systems are not on the list. A prominent example is the NCSA's Blue Waters which publicly announced the decision not to participate in the list because they do not feel it accurately indicates the ability of any system to do useful work. Other organizations decide not to list systems for security and/or commercial competitiveness reasons. One such example is the National Supercomputing Center at Qingdao's OceanLight supercomputer, completed in March 2021, which was submitted for, and won, the Gordon Bell Prize. The computer is an exaflops computer, but was not submitted to the TOP500 list; the first exaflops machine submitted to the TOP500 list was Frontier. Analysts suspected that the reason the NSCQ did not submit what would otherwise have been the world's first exascale supercomputer was to avoid inflaming political sentiments and fears within the United States, in the context of the United States – China trade war. Similarly, government agencies like the National Security Agency formerly submitted their devices to the TOP500, only to stop after 1998. Additional purpose-built machines that are not capable or do not run the benchmark were not included, such as RIKEN MDGRAPE-3 and MDGRAPE-4. A Google Tensor Processing Unit v4 pod is capable of 1.1 exaflops of peak performance, while TPU v5p claims over 4 exaflops in Bfloat16 floating-point format, however, these units are highly specialized to run machine learning workloads and the TOP500 measures a specific benchmark algorithm using a specific numeric precision. Tesla Dojo's primary unnamed cluster using 5,760 Nvidia A100 graphics processing units (GPUs) was touted by Andrej Karpathy in 2021 at the fourth International Joint Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition (CCVPR 2021) to be "roughly the number five supercomputer in the world" at approximately 81.6 petaflops, based on scaling the performance of the Nvidia Selene supercomputer, which uses similar components. In March 2024, Meta AI disclosed the operation of two datacenters with 24,576 H100 GPUs, which is almost 2x as on the Microsoft Azure Eagle (#3 ), which could have made them occupy 3rd and 4th places in TOP500, but neither have been benchmarked. During company's Q3 2024 earnings call in October, M. Zuckerberg disclosed usage of a cluster with over 100,000 H100s. xAI Memphis Supercluster (also known as "Colossus") allegedly features 100,000 of the same H100 GPUs, which could have put it in the first place, but it is reportedly not in full operation due to power shortages. After the onset of US-China Trade War, China has largely shrouded its newly online supercomputers and data centers in secrecy, opting out of reporting to the TOP500 list. This is partly driven by fears of being targeted by US sanctions placed on Chinese domestic suppliers. Computers and architectures that have dropped off the list IBM Roadrunner is no longer on the list (nor is any other using the Cell coprocessor, or PowerXCell). Although Itanium-based systems reached second rank in 2004, none now remain. Similarly (non-SIMD-style) vector processors (NEC-based such as the Earth simulator that was fastest in 2002) have also fallen off the list. Also the Sun Starfire computers that occupied many spots in the past now no longer appear. The last non-Linux computers on the list the two AIX ones running on POWER7 (in July 2017 ranked 494th and 495th, originally 86th and 85th), dropped off the list in November 2017. ==Notes==