Dynamics on the femtosecond time scale are in general too fast to be measured electronically. Most measurements are done by employing a sequence of ultrashort light pulses to initiate a process and record its dynamics. The temporal width (duration) of the light pulses has to be on the same scale as the dynamics that are to be measured or even shorter.
Light sources Titanium-sapphire laser Ti-sapphire lasers are tunable lasers that emit red and near-infrared light (700 nm- 1100 nm).
Ti-sapphire laser oscillators use Ti doped-sapphire crystals as a gain medium and
Kerr-lens mode-locking to achieve sub-picosecond light pulses. Typical Ti:sapphire oscillator pulses have nJ energy and repetition rates 70-100 MHz.
Chirped pulse amplification through
regenerative amplification can be used to attain higher pulse energies. For amplification, laser pulses from the Ti:sapphire oscillator must first be stretched in time to prevent damage to optics, and then are injected into the cavity of another laser where pulses are amplified at a lower repetition rate. Regeneratively amplified pulses can be further amplified in a multi-pass amplifier. Following amplification, the pulses are recompressed to pulse widths similar to the original pulse widths.
Dye laser A
dye laser is a four-level laser that uses an organic dye as the gain medium. Pumped by a laser with a fixed wavelength, due to various dye types you use, different dye lasers can emit beams with different wavelengths. A ring laser design is most often used in a dye laser system. Also, tuning elements, such as a diffraction grating or prism, are usually incorporated in the cavity. This allows only light in a very narrow frequency range to resonate in the cavity and be emitted as laser emission. The wide tunability range, high output power, and pulsed or CW operation make the dye laser particularly useful in many physical & chemical studies.
Fiber laser A
fiber laser is usually generated first from a
laser diode. The
laser diode then couples the light into a fiber where it will be confined. Different wavelengths can be achieved with the use of doped fiber. The pump light from the
laser diode will excite a state in the doped fiber which can then drop in energy causing a specific wavelength to be emitted. This wavelength may be different from that of the pump light and more useful for a particular experiment.
X-ray generation Ultrafast optical pulses can be used to generate
x-ray pulses in multiple ways. An optical pulse can excite an
electron pulse via the
photoelectric effect, and acceleration across a high potential gives the electrons kinetic energy. When the electrons hit a target they generate both
characteristic x-rays and
bremsstrahlung. A second method is via laser-induced plasma. When very high-intensity laser light is incident on a target, it strips electrons off the target creating a negatively charged
plasma cloud. The strong
Coulomb force due to the ionized material in the center of the cloud quickly accelerates the electrons back to the
nuclei left behind. Upon collision with the nuclei, Bremsstrahlung and characteristic emission x-rays are given off. This method of x-ray generation scatters photons in all directions, but also generates
picosecond x-ray pulses.
Conversion and characterization Pulse characterization For accurate spectroscopic measurements to be made, several characteristics of the laser pulse need to be known; pulse duration, pulse energy, spectral phase, and spectral shape are among some of these. Information about pulse duration can be determined through
autocorrelation measurements, or from cross-correlation with another well-characterized pulse. Methods allowing for complete characterization of pulses include
frequency-resolved optical gating (FROG) and
spectral phase interferometry for direct electric-field reconstruction (SPIDER).
Pulse shaping Pulse shaping is to modify the pulses from the source in a well-defined manner, including manipulation on pulse's amplitude, phase, and duration. To amplify pulse's intensity,
chirped pulse amplification is generally employed, which includes a pulse stretcher, amplifier, and compressor. It will not change the duration or phase of the pulse during the amplification. Pulse compression (shortening of the pulse duration) is achieved by first chirping the pulse in a nonlinear material and broadening the spectrum, with the following compressor for
chirp compensation. A fiber compressor is generally used in this case.
Pulse shapers usually refer to optical modulators which apply Fourier transforms to a laser beam. Depending on which property of light is controlled, modulators are called intensity modulators, phase modulators, polarization modulators, spatial light modulators. Depending on the modulation mechanism, optical modulators are divided into Acoustic-optic modulators, Electro-optic modulators, Liquid crystal modulators, etc. Each is dedicated to different applications.
High harmonic generation High harmonic generation (HHG) is a nonlinear process where intense laser radiation is converted from one fixed frequency to high harmonics of that frequency by ionization and recollision of an electron. It was first observed in 1987 by McPherson et al. who successfully generated harmonic emission up to the 17th order at 248 nm in neon gas. HHG is seen by focusing an ultra-fast, high-intensity, near-IR pulse into a noble gas at intensities of 1013–1014 W/cm2 and it generates coherent pulses in the XUV to Soft X-ray (100–1 nm) region of the spectrum. It is realizable on a laboratory scale (table-top systems) as opposed to large free electron-laser facilities. High harmonic generation in atoms is well understood in terms of the three-step model (ionization, propagation, and recombination). Ionization: The intense laser field modifies the Coulomb potential of the atom, electron tunnels through the barrier and ionize. Propagation: The free-electron accelerates in the laser field and gains momentum. Recombination: When the field reverses, the electron is accelerated back toward the ionic parent and releases a photon with very high energy.
Frequency conversion techniques Different spectroscopy experiments require different excitation or probe wavelengths. For this reason, frequency conversion techniques are commonly used to extend the operational spectrum of existing laser light sources. The most widespread conversion techniques rely on using crystals with second-order non-linearity to perform either
parametric amplification or
frequency mixing. Frequency mixing works by superimposing two beams of equal or different wavelengths to generate a signal which is a higher harmonic or the sum frequency of the first two. Parametric amplification overlaps a weak probe beam with a higher energy pump beam in a non-linear crystal such that the weak beam gets amplified and the remaining energy goes out as a new beam called the idler. This approach has the capability of generating output pulses that are shorter than the input ones. Different schemes of this approach have been implemented. Examples are
optical parametric oscillator (OPO),
optical parametric amplifier (OPA),
non-collinear parametric amplifier (NOPA).
Techniques Ultrafast transient absorption This method is typical of 'pump-probe' experiments, where a pulsed
laser is used to excite the electrons in a material (such as a molecule or semiconducting solid) from their
ground states to higher-energy
excited states. A probing light source, typically a
xenon arc lamp or broadband laser pulse created by
supercontinuum generation, is used to obtain an
absorption spectrum of the compound at various times following its excitation. As the excited molecules absorb the probe light, they are further excited to even higher states or induced to return to the ground state radiatively through
stimulated emission. After passing through the sample, the unabsorbed probe light continues to a
photodetector such as an
avalanche photodiode array or
CMOS camera, and the data is processed to generate an absorption spectrum of the excited state. Since all the molecules or excitation sites in the sample will not undergo the same dynamics simultaneously, this experiment must be carried out many times (where each "experiment" comes from a single pair of pump and probe laser pulse interactions), and the data must be averaged to generate spectra with accurate intensities and peaks. Because photobleaching and other photochemical or photothermal reactions can happen to the samples, this method requires evaluating these effects by measuring the same sample at the same location many times at different pump and probe intensities. Most time the liquid samples are stirred during measurement making relatively long-time kinetics difficult to measure due to flow and diffusion. Unlike time-correlated single photon counting (TCSPC), this technique can be carried out on non-fluorescent samples. It can also be performed on non-transmissive samples in a reflection geometry. Ultrafast transient absorption can use almost any probe light, so long as the probe is of a pertinent wavelength or set of wavelengths. A monochromator and photomultiplier tube in place of the avalanche photodiode array allows observation of a single probe wavelength, and thus allows probing of the decay kinetics of the excited species. The purpose of this setup is to take kinetic measurements of species that are otherwise nonradiative, and specifically it is useful for observing species that have short-lived and non-phosphorescent populations within the triplet manifold as part of their decay path. The pulsed laser in this setup is used both as a primary excitation source, and a clock signal for the ultrafast measurements. Although laborious and time-consuming, the monochromator position may also be shifted to allow absorbance decay profiles to be constructed, ultimately to the same effect as the above method. The data of UTA measurements usually are reconstructed absorption spectra sequenced over the delay time between the pump and probe. Each spectrum resembles a normal steady-state absorption profile of the sample after the delay time of the excitation with the time resolution convoluted from the pump and probe time resolutions. The excitation wavelength is blinded by the pump laser and cut out. The rest of the spectra usually have a few bands such as ground-state absorption, excited-state absorption, and stimulated emission. Under normal conditions, the angles of the emission are randomly orientated and not detected in the absorption geometry. But in UTA measurement, the stimulated emission resembles the lasing effect, is highly oriented, and is detected. Many times this emission overlaps with the absorption bands and needs to be deconvoluted for quantitative analysis. The relationship and correlation among these bands can be visualized using the classical spectroscopic
two-dimensional correlation analysis.
Time-resolved photoelectron spectroscopy and two-photon photoelectron spectroscopy Time-resolved photoelectron spectroscopy and
two-photon photoelectron spectroscopy (2PPE) combine a
pump-probe scheme with angle-resolved photoemission. A first laser pulse is used to excite a material, a second
laser pulse
ionizes the system. The
kinetic energy of the
electrons from this process is then detected, through various methods including energy mapping,
time of flight measurements etc. As above, the process is repeated many times, with different time delays between the probe pulse and the pump pulse. This builds up a picture of how the molecule relaxes over time. A variation of this method looks at the positive
ions created in this process and is called time-resolved photo-ion spectroscopy (TRPIS)
Multidimensional spectroscopy Using the same principles pioneered by
2D-NMR experiments, multidimensional optical or infrared spectroscopy is possible using ultrafast pulses. Different frequencies can probe various dynamic molecular processes to differentiate between inhomogeneous and homogeneous
line broadening as well as identify coupling between the measured spectroscopic transitions. If two oscillators are coupled together, be it intramolecular vibrations or intermolecular electronic coupling, the added dimensionality will resolve anharmonic responses not identifiable in linear spectra. A typical 2D pulse sequence consists of an initial pulse to pump the system into a coherent superposition of states, followed by a phase conjugate second pulse that pushes the system into a non-oscillating excited state, and finally, a third pulse that converts back to a coherent state that produces a measurable pulse. A 2D frequency spectrum can then be recorded by plotting the
Fourier transform of the delay between the first and second pulses on one axis, and the Fourier transform of the delay between a detection pulse relative to the signal-producing third pulse on the other axis. 2D spectroscopy is an example of a
four-wave mixing experiment, and the
wavevector of the signal will be the sum of the three incident wavevectors used in the pulse sequence. Multidimensional spectroscopies exist in
infrared and visible variants as well as combinations using different wavelength regions. 2D spectroscopy using ultrafast pulses can be combined with complementary experimental methods to characterize the system under study.
Photoelectrochemical measurements of
photosynthetic complexes have been correlated with ultrafast pulses to stimulate and probe
chromophores involved in
photosynthesis and to characterize the
charge transfer processes in
photosynthetic reaction centers.
Ultrafast imaging Most ultrafast imaging techniques are variations on standard
pump-probe experiments. Some commonly used techniques are Electron Diffraction imaging,
Kerr Gated Microscopy, imaging with ultrafast electron pulses and
terahertz imaging. This is particularly true in the biomedical community where safe and non-invasive techniques for diagnosis are always of interest. Terahertz imaging has recently been used to identify areas of decay in tooth enamel and image the layers of the skin. Additionally, it has shown to be able to successfully distinguish a region of breast carcinoma from healthy tissue. Other non-biomedical applications include ultrafast imaging around corners or through opaque objects.
Fluorescence upconversion Femtosecond
fluorescence upconversion is a pump-probe technique that uses
nonlinear optics to combine the
fluorescence signal and probe signal to create a signal with a new frequency via
sum-frequency generation, which is subsequently detected. The probe scans through delay times after the pump excites the sample, generating a plot of intensity over time. Fluorescence upconversion should not be confused with
photon upconversion.
Applications Applications of femtosecond spectroscopy to biochemistry Ultrafast processes are found throughout biology. Until the advent of femtosecond methods, many of the mechanism of such processes were unknown. Examples of these include the cis-trans photoisomerization of the
rhodopsin chromophore
retinal, excited state and population dynamics of
DNA, and the charge transfer processes in
photosynthetic reaction centers Advances in femtosecond methods are crucial to the understanding of ultrafast phenomena in nature.
Photodissociation and femtosecond probing Photodissociation is a chemical reaction in which a chemical compound is broken down by photons. It is defined as the interaction of one or more photons with one target molecule. Any photon with sufficient energy can affect the chemical bonds of a chemical compound, such as visible light, ultraviolet light, x-rays and gamma rays. The technique of probing chemical reactions has been successfully applied to unimolecular dissociations. The possibility of using a femtosecond technique to study bimolecular reactions at the individual collision level is complicated by the difficulties of spatial and temporal synchronization. One way to overcome this problem is through the use of Van der Waals complexes of weakly bound molecular cluster. Femtosecond techniques are not limited to the observation of the chemical reactions, but can even exploited to influence the course of the reaction. This can open new relaxation channels or increase the yield of certain reaction products. ==Picosecond-to-nanosecond spectroscopy==