Military Role and Expeditions Conquest of Sudan During the
Muslim conquest of the Maghreb, the
Sudanese element entered into the service of the
Islamic state. ʿUqba ibn Nāfiʿ led an expedition into the
southern desert, reaching
Fezzan, and from there to
Waddan,
Germa, and
Kawar, near
Kanem in
Bilād al-Sūdān. These regions had broken their pact with the Arab conquerors and fought against them, so he imposed on each of them a tribute of three hundred and sixty slaves.
Role in the Conquests of the Cyrenaican deserts and Fezzan After
Amr ibn al-As had taken control of
Barqa, he began preparing to invade the surrounding regions of the
Maghreb. He organized two armies: one advanced along the
coast to seize
Tripolitania and nearby coastal cities such as
Sirte and
Sabratha, while the other moved inland to capture many of the key settlements in the interior desert—centers of resistance in the heart of the land—to prevent their inhabitants from attacking the Muslims from behind and cutting off their retreat. The most important of these oases was the
Fezzan oasis. Amr dispatched his commander ʿUqba ibn Nāfiʿ to Fezzan, which he conquered, and he then continued his advance until reaching
Zawila, which he secured through a peace agreement. ʿUqba succeeded in his mission. According to
Ibn Abd al-Hakam, "The land between Barqa and Zawila came under Muslim control." Amr ibn al-As wrote to the
Caliph ʿUmar ibn al-Khattab reporting the success of ʿUqba ibn Nāfiʿ. According to
al-Baladhuri: After capturing
Barqa, then proceeding to
Tripolitania in 644. Upon conquering
Cyrenaica in 642 or 643,
Amr ibn al-As fixed the
jizyah to be paid by its
Berber tribes at 13,000 dinars. After a short while, Amr ibn al-As returned back to Egypt for multiple reasons and one of them was at the request of ʿUmar ibn al-Khattab, after leaving ʿUqba ibn Nāfiʿ in charge of Barqa and the surrounding desert regions to call their inhabitants to
Islam. Barqa then became the base of the Islamic army in western
Egypt.
Military Campaigns during the Ummayad Era After the
First Fitna and establishment of the
Umayyad Caliphate in 661 by
Mu'awiya I, a second invasion of the Maghreb began. An army of 10,000 Muslims and thousands of others led by Uqba departed from
Damascus and marched into the
Exarchate of Africa, beginning another long series of Umayyad attempts to conquer all of Roman Africa. Later, Caliph Muʿāwiya ibn Abī Sufyān appointed
Mu'awiya ibn Hudayj as governor of
Ifriqiya in the year 45 AH / 665 CE. His appointment was primarily due to his capability as a military commander, the large number of his tribesmen in
Egypt, and his support for Caliph
Uthman ibn Affan during the struggle for the caliphate, in addition to his knowledge of military affairs. He was accompanied by
Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan,
Yahya ibn al-Hakam,
Khalid ibn Thabit al-Fahmi,
Abd Allah ibn al-Zubayr, and
Abd Allah ibn Umar, along with detachments from the armies of
Levant (
al-Sham) and Egypt, numbering ten thousand soldiers. Ibn Hudayj marched with his forces through Barqa and Tripolitania. ʿUqba ibn Nāfiʿ, who was in command of the garrison in Barca, joined the campaign. Ibn Hudayj benefited from his experience with the nature of warfare in those regions. Muʿāwiya ibn Ḥudayj was unable to complete the conquest of
Ifriqiya, as Caliph Muʿāwiya ibn Abī Sufyān dismissed him in 50 AH / 670 CE and established him as governor of Egypt. He appointed ʿUqba ibn Nāfiʿ al-Fihri as governor of Ifriqiya.
Governorship of Ifriqya Uqba was appointed as the governor of Ifriqiya after the dismissing of ibn Ḥudayj. It is known that ʿUqba was among the first Muslim soldiers to participate in Amr ibn al-As’s campaign against Barqa in 23 AH / 643–644 CE, and he remained there for a quarter of a century, during which he distinguished himself and led some conquests. ʿUqba had been residing in Barqa and Zawila since the time of Amr ibn al-As’s governorship. Arab historians described ʿUqba ibn Nāfiʿ as a devout and pious man, calling him “ʿUqba the one whose prayers were answered” (
ʿUqba al-mustajāb).
Uqba’s Campaigns in the Desert Hinterland of Tripolitania and Ifriqiya ʿUqba ibn Nāfiʿ launched a campaign in the desert regions of Tripolitania and
Ifriqiya, simultaneously with the coastal campaign of
Muʿāwiya ibn Ḥudayj, and under his authority. This followed the general strategy of Arab commanders to secure both desert and coastal zones against any threats that might endanger the main forces from those directions. •
Waddan: In 46 AH / 666 CE, ʿUqba set out after Muʿāwiya ibn Ḥudayj, accompanied by two Muslim commanders experienced in desert warfare:
Busr ibn Abi Artat and Sharik ibn Sumayya al-Muradi. He reached
Ghadames from
Sirte, leaving his army there under the command of
Umar ibn Ali al-Qurashi and
Zuhayr ibn Qays al-Balawi. He then advanced with a force of 400 cavalry, 100 camels, and 800 water-skins until he arrived at
Waddan, which he conquered. He imposed a fine on its king of 360 slaves for violating a prior treaty made with Busr during Amr ibn al-As’s siege of Tripoli. •
Germa: From Waddan, ʿUqba advanced to
Germa, the principal city of the Fezzan region. As he approached, he sent a message inviting them to embrace Islam. They accepted, and he encamped six miles outside the city. Their king came to meet ʿUqba and agreed to pay a tribute of approximately 360 slaves. ʿUqba immediately sent this tribute eastward. •
Kawar: ʿUqba continued his advance southward, conquering the forts of Fezzan until he reached
Kawar. According to
al-Bakri, he arrived at Jawān, a major fortress located on rugged terrain atop a mountain—it was the capital of Kawar. He reached an agreement with its king to pay a tribute of 360 slaves. When ʿUqba asked a guide about lands further south of Kawar, they replied that they knew of none. So he turned back and encamped at a place called ''Mā' al-Faras'' (Water of the Horse). The Muslims suffered severe thirst there, nearly dying. ʿUqba prayed two units of prayer and supplicated to God. His horse began pawing at the ground until it uncovered solid rock, from which water burst forth. ʿUqba called on the people to dig, and the spot was named Māʾ al-Faras. Then Uqba returned unexpectedly via a different route from the one he had previously taken to Kawar, until they became reassured and opened the city gates. Then Uqba surprised them and attacked them at night, finding them in a state of security. Uqba engaged them in battle and seized what was in the city. Uqba's sudden return with his army to the lands of Kawar was a very skillful maneuver, through which he applied the principle of surprise timing, descending upon Kawar at a time when its people did not expect it. After that, Uqba returned and camped at the location of Zawila, then departed to his soldiers after five months. Uqba penetrated the desert with few, light forces because movement in the desert is very difficult with large forces due to the scarcity of water. This was also because he estimated that he would not encounter large forces during his penetration, as the regular Roman forces would not be able to fight in such terrain—their domain being the coastal areas where water is available. Thus, Uqba faced only the forces of the original desert inhabitants. He marched with his army heading toward the Maghreb and avoided traveling on the coastal road that connects
Sirte with
Gabès, either due to the abundance of fortresses and garrisons in this coastal region, or because he wanted to surprise the people of Ifriqiya by storming their lands coming from within the desert before they had prepared to repel and resist him. Uqba sent a detachment from his army to
Ghadames and conquered it. Then he marched to conquer
Gafsa and
Kasserine (Qastiliya), then Uqba returned to
Kairouan. Caliph Muawiya ibn Abi Sufyan was fully aware of what was happening on the soil of the Maghreb and was also knowledgeable about Uqba ibn Nafi's military efforts.Therefore, he appointed Uqba ibn Nafi as governor of Ifriqiya in the year 50 AH / 670 CE and sent him ten thousand horsemen, to whom Uqba added those Berbers who had converted to Islam, the army stationed in the city of Sirte in
Cyrenaica, in addition to the detachment with which he had raided Fezzan and Kawar. Uqba realized that the Islamic conquest would not be stabilized except by establishing a city on the Maghrebi soil to serve as a headquarters for Muslims and a launching point for continuing the Islamic conquests. Therefore, he began building the city of
Kairouan. In other words, the founding of Kairouan was a true expression of the stability of the Islamic entity in the Maghreb, and with Uqba's governorship began the province of Ifriqiya, even though it remained subordinate for some time to the government of
Fustat.Undoubtedly, the establishment of Kairouan demonstrates sound political thinking, as this would help transform the Maghreb into part of the
Caliphate, thereby achieving the supreme goal of the Islamic conquest movement. Without this, it would remain merely a frontier region of raids and expeditions. The building of Kairouan demonstrates Uqba ibn Nafi's deep understanding of the psychology of the people of the land where he had stayed for nearly a quarter of a century. He said: The
Berbers were influenced by what they witnessed of Uqba's conduct, and many of them embraced Islam. Then Uqba began building Kairouan in the year 50 AH / 670 CE to be the first base for Muslims in Ifriqiya, as he had learned of the inhabitants' intentions through his residence among them. The story of building Kairouan began when Uqba led an Arab army to North Africa, crossing the Egyptian deserts, and setting up military posts at regular intervals along his route. In a region of what is now
Tunisia, he established the town now called
Kairouan (meaning "camp" or "
caravanserai" in
Persian) about 99 miles south of present-day
Tunis, which he used as a base for further operations. This became a place of religious
pilgrimage and the most important city in North Africa. Kairouan was chosen as the capital of the new Umayyad province of
Ifriqiya. Uqba chose the site for its first mosque, and the
Great Mosque of Kairouan was constructed on the same year. This mosque has served as a model of all later mosques in the Maghreb, and is considered one of the masterpieces of
Islamic architecture. Arab historians differed regarding the area of Kairouan. Both
Ibn Idhari and Al-Nuwayri estimated it at approximately 13,600 cubits, while Ibn al-Athir and
Al-Salawi estimated it at 3,600 cubits. Another Arabic historian points out that the first area mentioned by Ibn Idhari and Al-Nuwayri—7,000 meters—is reasonable in relation to the housing for the military, tribes, and those who joined them from the local population. As for the second area, estimated at approximately 5,800 meters, it is reasonable in relation to the original city plan, the construction of walls, and defensive measures. The role of Kairouan was clear and evident in spreading Islam and
Arabization among the Berber tribes, as its scholars from among the sons of the
Companions and the
Followers were the best preachers and the best supporters. The building of Kairouan resulted in many Berbers embracing Islam.
Ibn al-Athir says: "Many of the Berbers entered Islam, and the Muslims' plan was strengthened, and the courage of the soldiers there in the city of Kairouan was reinforced, and they felt secure and at peace in their residence, so Islam became firmly established there." Kairouan would become a center of religious influence for teaching the inhabitants of the land the laws of the true Islamic religion.When the construction of Kairouan was completed, it was inhabited by a group of Berbers who had entered Islam and began to speak Arabic and become Arabized. The years of Uqba's first governorship from 50–56 AH represent the first step in establishing the Islamic
Arab Maghreb. Uqba, during his construction of Kairouan, continued to send military expeditions to establish Arab authority in the region and secure resources and provisions. After Uqba remained in his governorship for five years, spending most of them establishing Kairouan and spreading Islam in the nearby regions, he was dismissed by
Maslama ibn Mukhallad al-Ansari, the governor of Egypt, who appointed
Abu al-Muhajir Dinar in his place. Some researchers have interpreted the reasons for Uqba's removal from the governorship of Ifriqiya as being due to his preoccupation with building Kairouan rather than conducting raids, which reduced the spoils he sent to the governors of the
Mashriq, and the abundance of these spoils was the measure by which a commander's diligence in leadership was assessed. However, the authors do not agree with this opinion, arguing that Caliph
Mu'awiya wanted to reward Maslama ibn Mukhallad, who was one of his most prominent supporters.
Dismissal and Imprisonment of Uqba When Abu al-Muhajir arrived in the Maghreb, he treated Uqba ibn Nafi harshly upon dismissing him, reportedly placing him in iron chains. One researcher explains Abu al-Muhajir Dinar's behavior as stemming from Uqba's popularity in Ifriqiya among both Arabs and Berbers, reasoning that Abu al-Muhajir believed he could not easily control his governorship unless he restricted Uqba's freedom, at least temporarily. This interpretation appears largely reasonable. When Caliph Mu'awiya learned of what had befallen Uqba, he wrote to Abu al-Muhajir ordering Uqba's release and sent messengers to escort him out of
Gabès. Sources indicate that upon his release, Uqba went to Qasr al-Ma, one of the areas near Kairouan, prayed two prostrations, then supplicated, saying: "O God, do not let me die until I gain power over Abu al-Muhajir Dinar." Abu al-Muhajir reportedly remained fearful after learning of this supplication, saying: "He is a devout servant whose prayers are not rejected." Another Arab historian argues that
Maslama ibn Mukhallad was responsible for the mistreatment Uqba ibn Nafi suffered at Abu al-Muhajir Dinar's hands, basing his opinion on the rivalry between Maslama and Uqba over governorship, honor, and favor with Caliph Mu'awiya. Despite Maslama's attempts to appease Uqba and apologize while denying responsibility, this only suggests that Maslama feared Mu'awiya's anger when Uqba would report the mistreatment he had suffered. Consequently, he quickly blamed Abu al-Muhajir Dinar. According to
Ibn Sa'd's account of Caliph Mu'awiya ibn Abi Sufyan's words, responsibility for Uqba's dismissal lay with Maslama ibn Mukhallad. When Uqba presented his complaint to Caliph Mu'awiya, the caliph apologized, acknowledging Maslama's service and loyalty before reinstating Uqba to his position. In reality, historical sources conflicted on this issue, leading one modern researcher to frankly admit his confusion, asking: "Who is responsible? Should blame fall on Maslama ibn Mukhallad as the commander, or on Abu al-Muhajir as the executor?" He concluded that blaming the latter was closer to reality, reasoning that "the witness may see what the absent cannot see."
The Second Governorship of Uqba ibn Nafi (62-64 AH / 681-683 CE) Gentle Reproach between Uqba and Mu'awiya ibn Abi Sufyan When Uqba ibn Nafi was dismissed from Ifriqiya in 55 AH / 674 CE, he traveled to Damascus and met with Caliph Mu'awiya ibn Abi Sufyan, saying to him: Mu'awiya apologized to him, saying: "I have restored you to your position as governor..." Despite Mu'awiya's promise to Uqba to restore him to the governorship of Ifriqiya, the situation remained unchanged until
Yazid I assumed the caliphate and learned of Uqba's complaint, whereupon he reinstated him as governor in the year 62 AH / 681 CE. This was his second governorship over Ifriqiya and the entire Maghreb. Caliph Yazid said: "Reach it before it perishes and is lost!"
Uqba Returns to Ifriqiya Uqba returned to the governorship of Ifriqiya and seized it from Maslama ibn Mukhallad, the governor of Egypt. Uqba marched to Kairouan with ten thousand horsemen. He dismissed Abu al-Muhajir Dinar and bound him with iron chains. He even took him on raids to
Sous while he was in chains. Uqba ordered the people to return to Kairouan and began developing it, relocating people there. The city flourished and its importance grew. Uqba rode with the military commanders, some Companions, and Followers, circling around Kairouan while supplicating for it, saying: What draws attention in Uqba's policy during his second governorship is that he did not adhere to Abu al-Muhajir Dinar's policy, which had proven greatly successful and resulted in many Berbers of
Aures entering Islam.
Uqba Goes Out for Jihad Uqba's goal was to complete the conquest of the Maghreb, so he left Zuhayr ibn Qays al-Balawi in charge of Kairouan. He left with him the families and wealth, then gathered his sons and said to them: Uqba advanced to
Baghai, located near the
Aures Mountains, and managed to defeat the Berbers and
Romans before seizing their wealth. Then he proceeded to the city of
Monastir, which was one of the greatest Byzantine cities. Uqba continued to
Lambaesis, the strongest of the Byzantine fortresses, and engaged them in fierce combat. People thought it would be their destruction, but he defeated them and pursued them to the gate of their fortress, capturing abundant spoils.
Conquest of the Zab Region Uqba continued his advance to the
Zab region, which was a vast territory containing several cities and many villages. He targeted its greatest city,
Arba, and the Muslims fought its inhabitants at
Wadi al-Msila. When the Byzantines learned of Uqba's arrival, they took refuge in their fortress and most of them fled to the mountains. He then met the Romans at the valley in the evening but disliked fighting them at night, so the forces remained awake throughout the night, which is why people call it "Wadi Sahr" (Valley of Vigilance) to this day. He prepared for battle in the morning. The fighting intensified and the tide of battle turned in favor of the Muslims.
Al-Raqiq describes the scene of their victory, saying: Uqba captured abundant spoils from them, and the Byzantines lost their control over the Zab. The Muslims' seizure of the Zab region and their control over Wadi al-Msila marked a decisive turning point in the course of the conquests in Ifriqiya. Until now, the war had been between the Byzantines and Arabs while the Berbers remained neutral. When the Arabs entered this region, they entered a Berber territory of the interior and seized the settlements of Berber tribes, making these tribes realize that they too were targets of this conquest. The relationship between the Byzantines and Berbers had been negative, as the Byzantines confined themselves to the coasts and interior fortresses, supported only by a small number of locals who had been influenced by Byzantine culture and adopted Christianity. When the Byzantines witnessed Uqba's successive victories in the Zab, they believed it was futile to confront the Arabs alone, so they sought Berber assistance, which the Berbers agreed to provide. We have no details about the nature of the agreement between the Byzantines and Berbers, but undoubtedly the Islamic threat surrounding their lands made them cooperate in resisting the Muslims.Uqba moved from the Zab to the city of
Tiaret, where he found the Byzantines and Berbers standing as one front to resist him. Fierce fighting broke out between the Muslims on one side and the Berbers and Byzantines on the other, with their numbers exceeding the Islamic force. Ibn al-Athir says: "The situation became difficult for the Muslims due to the enemy's large numbers, but then Allah granted them victory, and the Byzantines and Berbers were routed." Despite being outnumbered compared to the Byzantines and Berbers, the Muslims' opponents did not hold firm long on the battlefield, and their affair ended with them either killed or fled.
Conquest of the Maghreb Al-Aqsa When Uqba intended to enter the
Maghreb al-Aqsa (Far Maghreb), Abu al-Muhajir advised him to withdraw from
Tangier because the Berber tribe of
Aurès had converted to Islam with
Kusaila's conversion, and there was no reason to raid them. He advised him to send a governor with Kusaila, but Uqba refused. He became the first Arab Muslim commander to enter the Far Maghreb, conquering the cities of
Ceuta and Tangier. Tangier was ruled by a man called
Julian, who controlled the coast of the strait at Ceuta. He was among the noble Byzantine kings. He treated Uqba kindly, presented him with fine gifts, and submitted to his rule. When Uqba asked him about the sea of
Al-Andalus, he said: The egyptian historian
Husayn Mones notes that Julian was neither Byzantine nor Berber, as he told Uqba that the Byzantines were behind him and the Berbers ahead. His warning to Uqba against crossing to Al-Andalus indicates he was eager to spare Al-Andalus from the Muslims, which only makes sense if Julian was from Al-Andalus and concerned about its affairs. This supports the view that he was a
Visigoth appointed by the Goths in Spain to guard the land from any aggressor. It is established that Uqba was convinced by Julian's opinion and drew up his military plan accordingly. Uqba launched his attack on Sous al-Adna, encountering Berbers in heavy numbers. They were routed, and he killed them extensively. Muslim cavalry spread throughout the lands and coasts, capturing women and seizing wealth, so that a Byzantine slave girl from them was worth a thousand dinars in the
Mashriq. The Berbers fled before him to
Sous al-Aqsa (Farthest Sous), where they assembled a large force, but Uqba managed to defeat them. He marched until he reached the
Atlantic Ocean, Uqba proceeded to a place known as Ma'a Fars (Horse's Water), then took the route back to Ifriqiya via Ighiran, then to Tazna, then to the place of Shakir and the lands of
Doukkala, calling them to Islam, but they refused. Uqba fought them, then returned to the lands of Doukkala and to Haskura. Despite Uqba's focus on conquest, he did not forget during that campaign to invite the inhabitants of those lands to Islam, which was the primary objective of these conquests. He also established mosques in Igli in Sous, in
Draa, in Sous al-Aqsa, and in
Wadi Nfis. == Death ==