A variety of different classes of drugs have shown wakefulness-promoting effects, including: •
Dopamine reuptake inhibitors like
modafinil,
armodafinil,
mesocarb,
phenylpiracetam, and
vanoxerine •
Norepinephrine–dopamine reuptake inhibitors like
methylphenidate,
solriamfetol,
mazindol,
bupropion,
nomifensine, and
amineptine •
Norepinephrine releasing agents like
ephedrine and
selegiline (via its
metabolites) •
Adenosine receptor antagonists like
caffeine,
paraxanthine, and
istradefylline •
Histamine H3 receptor antagonists and
inverse agonists like
pitolisant and
samelisant Other drugs Histamine and other histamine
H1 receptor agonists also have wakefulness-promoting effects. However, H1 receptor agonists as drugs are limited by their mediation of
allergy-type
symptoms. Relatedly, some psychedelics are associated with mild stimulant-like effects in humans and psychedelics have often been associated with
insomnia or
sleep disturbances. Similarly to serotonergic psychedelics, the
iboga alkaloids and
oneirogens
ibogaine and
noribogaine have been found to promote wakefulness in rodents. Relatedly, low doses of
Tabernanthe spp. extracts containing ibogaine have been used pharmaceutically as stimulants in the past. Certain other drugs are being studied as wakefulness-promoting agents as well, including
GABAA receptor antagonists and
negative allosteric modulators like
clarithromycin,
flumazenil, and
pentylenetetrazol (pentetrazol), among others. The
GHB and
GABAB receptor agonist sodium oxybate or
γ-hydroxybutyrate (GHB) has been used in the treatment of narcolepsy. Relatedly, some researchers have classified this drug as a stimulant-like agent. However, GHB is taken at night and only results in improved wakefulness the next day following sleep. ==Terminology==