The War of the Worlds

The plot is similar to other works of invasion literature from the same period and has been variously interpreted as a commentary on the theory of evolution, imperialism, and Victorian era fears, superstitions and prejudices. Wells later noted that inspiration for the plot was the catastrophic effect of European colonisation on the Aboriginal Tasmanians. The story is told in the first-person with a narrator making his way about London as the invasion proceeds. Glimpses of destruction, his retreat, and conversations with other survivors drive the narrative. Some historians have argued that Wells wrote the book to encourage his readership to question the morality of imperialism. In the preface to his collected works in 1933, Wells explained: "My early, profound and lifelong admiration for Jonathan Swift|[Jonathan] Swift...is particularly evident in a predisposition to make the stories reflect upon contemporary political and social discussions", adding "The War of the Worlds like The Time Machine was another assault on human self-satisfaction", both being "consciously grim, under the influence of Swift's tradition". The Coming of the Martians for the 1906 edition. In the mid-1890s, aliens on Mars plot an invasion of Earth because their world is becoming uninhabitable. In the early 20th century, in the summer, an object thought to be a meteor lands on Horsell Common, near the narrator's home. It turns out to be an artificial cylinder launched towards Earth months earlier, as Earth and Mars approached opposition. Several Martians emerge and struggle with Earth's gravity and atmosphere. The alien beings do not resemble humans and have an enormously enlarged head and brain, two large eyes, and a beak mouth, on an octopus-like body with long, whip-shaped tentacles for grasping and locomotion. When humans approach the cylinder waving a white flag, the Martians incinerate them using a heat ray. The crowd flees. That evening a large military force surrounds the cylinder. The next night, the narrator sees a three-legged Martian "fighting-machine" (tripod), armed with a heat-ray and a chemical weapon. Tripods have wiped out the human soldiers around the cylinder and destroyed most of Woking. The narrator approaches his own house and finds the landlord dead. He offers shelter to an artilleryman whose battery was wiped out attacking the cylinder. The narrator and the artilleryman try to escape but are separated during a Martian attack. As refugees try to cross the River Wey, the army destroys a tripod with artillery fire, and the Martians retreat. The narrator travels to Walton, where he meets a curate. , illustration by Henrique Alvim Corrêa for the 1906 edition. The Martians attack again, and people begin to flee London, trying to escape the deadly black chemical vapor spread by the invaders. The narrator's brother reaches the coast and buys passage to Europe on a refugee ship. Three Tripods attack, but a torpedo ram, HMS Thunder Child, manages to destroy all three, with the ironclad sinking shortly after the third tripod's destruction due to heatray damages. Fortunately, it was enough to allow the evacuation fleet to escape unscathed. Soon, resistance collapses, and Martians roam the shattered landscape unhindered. The Earth under the Martians In Book Two, the narrator and the curate witness a Martian machine seizing people and tossing them into a metal carrier. The narrator realises that the Martian invaders have plans for their victims. When a fifth Martian cylinder lands, both men are trapped beneath the ruins of a manor house. Hidden in the wreckage, the narrator observes the Martians in the impact pit and learns that they feed on blood, taken now from humans, and that they appear to communicate with some type of telepathy. The curate falls into despair. When he tries to eat their remaining food, the narrator knocks him unconscious. A mechanical tentacle probes the smashed house and removes the curate's body, but the narrator is able to escape and hide. The Martians abandon the cylinder's crater, and the narrator heads for West London. En route, he finds Martian red weed everywhere, prickly vegetation spreading wherever there is water, but notices that it is slowly dying. On Putney Hill, he encounters the artilleryman, who is planning tactics for how humans can continue fighting the Martians after they control the world. The next day the narrator heads into the deserted ruins of London and hears a strange howling sound coming from immobile Martian fighting machines. On an insane impulse, he resolves to die and end his hopeless situation. He approaches a stationary fighting machine on Primrose Hill, expecting to be killed. To his joy and relief, he discovers that all the Martians are dead, killed by earthly pathogens, to which they had no immunity. The narrator suffers a nervous breakdown. Returning to Woking, he finds his wife. In the following days, humankind gradually recovers and makes scientific progress from studying the Martian corpses and machines. However, there is still the humbling realization of Earth's vulnerability and the possibility of another invasion. ==Background ==

Inspiration Wells explained that he was exposed to the scenario of an empty and depopulated London almost simultaneously by a friend during a conversation and through the novel A Sensational Trance, by Forbes Dawson. Being attracted to the idea about writing a similar story himself, he tried to come up with a reason for why London was empty, and concluded the one that made the most sense was a mass exodus. When thinking about what could have caused the flight, he suddenly remembered his brother's idea about superior beings from another planet suddenly dropping from the sky. Wells's son Anthony West claimed another seed for the novel can be found in The Time Machine, where the narrator speculates about the possible future evolution of humanity, thinking it could have "developed into something inhuman, unsympathetic, and overwhelmingly powerful". Next, the picture came to him that the aliens would arrive in interplanetary cylinders, an idea he borrowed from Jules Verne's stories about spaceflight. When deciding from what planet, he picked Mars, both because it was the one most similar to Earth, and because scientists of the time wrongly assumed Mars was older than Earth, and therefore the Martians would have a longer evolutionary history than humans, having evolved into much more advanced creatures. Wells was trained as a science teacher during the latter half of the 1880s. One of his teachers was Thomas Henry Huxley, a major advocate of Darwinism. Wells later taught science, and his first book was a biology textbook. Much of his work makes contemporary ideas of science and technology easily understandable. Scientific setting for the 1906 edition, showing "canals" on Mars. The War of the Worlds presents itself as a factual account of the Martian invasion. The scientific fascinations of the novel are established in the opening chapter. The narrator views Mars through a telescope, and Wells offers the image of the superior Martians having observed human affairs as though watching tiny organisms through a microscope. In August 1894, a French astronomer reported sightings of a "strange light" on Mars. Wells used this observation to open the novel, imagining these lights to be the launching of the Martian cylinders toward Earth. Italian astronomer Giovanni Schiaparelli described apparent linear features on Mars in 1877, wrongly supposing these were canali (Italian for "channels"). In 1895, American astronomer Percival Lowell speculated in his book Mars that these might be irrigation channels, constructed by a sentient life form to support existence on an arid, dying world. The novel also explores ideas related to Charles Darwin's theory of natural selection. In 1896, Wells published an essay on 'Intelligence on Mars' in the Saturday Review, setting out ideas about life on Mars. Wells speculates on the nature of Martian inhabitants and how their evolutionary progress might compare to humans. Physical location depicts a tripod and (out of picture) a Martian cylinder. "The Woking Martian"; Michael Condron, 1998 In 1895, Wells married Catherine Robbins, and moved with her to Woking in Surrey. There, he spent his mornings walking or cycling in the countryside, and his afternoons writing. He used these bicycle tours to find places he would refer to in his novel. He wrote in his autobiography that he “wheeled about the district marking down suitable places and people for destruction by my Martians”. A high sculpture of a tripod fighting machine, entitled The Woking Martian, based on descriptions in the novel, stands in Crown Passage close to the local railway station in Woking, designed and constructed in 1998 by artist Michael Condron. Fifty meters further up the pedestrianised street is a concrete and brick representation of a Martian cylinder. Cultural setting Wells's depiction of late Victorian suburban culture in the novel was an accurate representation of his experiences. In the late 19th century, the British Empire was the predominant colonial power on the globe, making its domestic heart a poignant and terrifying starting point for an invasion by Martians with their own imperialist agenda. ==Publication==

In the late 1890s it was common for novels to be serialised in magazines or newspapers before publication in full, with each part of the serialisation ending on a cliffhanger to entice audiences to buy the next issue. This practice was familiar from Charles Dickens's novels earlier in the 19th century. The War of the Worlds was first serialised in the United Kingdom in ''Pearson's Magazine'' from April to December 1897. Wells was paid £200 and Pearsons demanded to know the ending of the piece before committing to publish it. The complete volume was first published by Heinemann in 1898 and has been in print ever since, although several editions exist. The 1924 Atlantic edition is considered the definitive text used for reprints. In addition, a revised version for schools was first published by Heinemann in 1951. Two unauthorised serialisations of the novel were published in the United States prior to publication of the novel. The first was in the New York Evening Journal where the story was published as Fighters from Mars or the War of the Worlds, located in a New York setting, between December 1897 and January 1898. The second version had the Martians landing near and around Boston, and was published by The Boston Post as Fighters from Mars, or the War of the Worlds in and near Boston in 1898. Hughes and Geduld suggest that Wells may inadvertently have agreed to the serialisation in the New York Evening Journal. File:Fighters from Mars 2.jpg|Fighters from Mars or the War of the Worlds in and near Boston, unauthorized adaptation of the novel in the Boston Post in 1898 File:The War of the Worlds - poster by Henrique Alvim Corrêa, original graphic.jpg|Advertisement for deluxe edition of The War of the Worlds (La Guerre des Mondes) in French, published in Belgium in 1906 with illustrations by Henrique Alvim Corrêa File:Amazing stories 192708.jpg|Cover of Amazing Stories August 1927 issue, for a reprint of The War of the Worlds, artwork by Frank R. Paul File:War of the Worlds original cover bw.jpg|Title page, 1927 Amazing Stories reprint, illustration by Frank R. Paul File:Famous fantastic mysteries 195107.jpg|A reprint of The War of the Worlds was cover-featured on the July 1951 issue of Famous Fantastic Mysteries. == Reception ==

Contemporary The War of the Worlds was received favourably by both readers and critics. The Illustrated London News wrote that the serialisation in ''Pearson's magazine'' had "a very distinct success". The story did even better as a book, and reviewers rated it as "the very best work he has yet produced", Later ==Interpretations==

Natural selection In the novel, the conflict between humankind and the Martians is portrayed as a survival of the fittest, with the Martians whose longer period of successful evolution on the older Mars has led to their developing a superior intelligence, able to create weapons far in advance of humans on the younger planet Earth, who have not had the opportunity to develop sufficient intelligence to construct similar weapons. Human evolution The narrator refers to an 1893 publication suggesting that the evolution of the human brain might outstrip the development of the body. Organs such as the stomach, nose, teeth, and hair would wither. Humans would be left as thinking machines, needing mechanical devices much like the Tripod fighting machines, to be able to interact with their environment. This publication is probably Wells's own "The Man of the Year Million", first published in The Pall Mall Gazette on 6 November 1893, which suggests similar ideas. In his vision for the future of humanity, Wells imagined them as having huge hands and large heads with soulful eyes. The rest of the body had shriveled into nothing. Instead of a digestive system, they absorb liquid nutrients from a pool through the surface of their body, while machinery does all the work their muscles can no longer accomplish, and their emotions have been replaced by an intellect that have turned society into a "paragon of order and calm" through co-operation. Colonialism and imperialism showing the British Empire at the time of the novel's publication While invasion literature had provided an imaginative foundation for the idea of the heart of the British Empire being conquered by foreign forces, it was not until The War of the Worlds that the British public was presented with an adversary that was completely superior to themselves. A significant motivating force behind the success of the British Empire was its use of sophisticated technology; the Martians, also attempting to establish an empire on Earth, have technology superior to their British adversaries. In The War of the Worlds, Wells depicted an imperial power as the victim of imperial aggression, and thus perhaps encouraging the reader to consider the morality of imperialism itself. The novel dramatises these ideas, as the more advanced Martians exercise their "rights" as a superior race over humans. ==Antecedents==

Terrestrial '' initiated invasion literature. Between 1871 and 1914 more than 60 works of fiction for adult readers describing invasions of Great Britain were published. The original work was The Battle of Dorking (1871) by George Tomkyns Chesney, which portrays a surprise German attack and landing on the south coast of England, made possible by the distraction of the Royal Navy in colonial patrols and the army in an Irish insurrection. The German army makes short work of English militia and rapidly marches to London. This story was published in ''Blackwood's Magazine'' in May 1871 and was so popular that it was reprinted a month later as a pamphlet which sold 80,000 copies. There are clear plot similarities between Wells's book and The Battle of Dorking, with the destruction of the Home Counties of Southern England by the invader. However, The War of the Worlds is a far more imaginative story. The invasion literature genre provided a familiar base from which to support the success of The War of the Worlds. It may also have proved an important foundation for Wells's ideas, as he had never seen or fought in a war. Extraterrestrial Wells is credited with establishing several extraterrestrial themes which were later greatly expanded by science fiction writers in the 20th century, including first contact and war between planets and their differing species. There were, however, stories of aliens and alien invasion prior to the publication of The War of the Worlds. Other examples are Hugh MacColl's ''Mr. Stranger's Sealed Packet'' (1889), which took place on Mars, Gustavus W. Pope's Journey to Mars (1894), and ''Pharaoh's Broker'' by Elmer Dwiggins, writing under the name of Ellsworth Douglass, in which the protagonist encounters an Egyptian civilisation on Mars which, while parallel to that of Earth, has evolved somehow independently. , 1926"The Crystal Egg", a short story by Wells that featured alien creatures on Mars, appeared in the May 1897 issue of the literary magazine The New Review. The narrative concerns a curious egg-shaped object in which a viewer could discern scenes on another world that had two moons in the sky, presumably indicating Mars. Strange winged beings could be seen pursuing activities in city-like structures, viewed from another crystal egg on a mast. The story appeared at the same time that The War of the Worlds was being serialized in ''Pearson's Magazine and has been interpreted as a kind of precursor to the full novel, suggesting that beings on Mars had been using such two-way crystals to observe Earth and its inhabitants. However, the Martians described in "The Crystal Egg" bear no resemblance to the octopus-like invaders of Earth in The War of the Worlds''. ==The work's influence==

's A Princess of Mars (cover illustrated by Frank Schoonover) The publication and reception of The War of the Worlds brought the term "Martians" into popular usage for hostile aliens of all kinds. Six weeks after the publication of the novel, The Boston Post newspaper published another alien invasion story, an unauthorised sequel to The War of the Worlds, which turned the tables on the invaders. ''Edison's Conquest of Mars was written by Garrett P. Serviss, a now little-remembered writer, who described the inventor Thomas Edison leading a counterattack against the invaders on their home soil. Lazar Lagin published Major Well Andyou in the U.S.S.R. in 1962, an alternative view of events in The War of the Worlds'' from the viewpoint of a traitor. ==Adaptations==

As of 2025, The War of the Worlds has inspired eight films, as well as various radio dramas, comics, video games, television series, and sequels or parallel stories by other authors. Most are set in different locations or eras to the original novel. Among the adaptations is the 1938 radio broadcast narrated and directed by Orson Welles, set in contemporary America and presented as a live news story happening in New Jersey. The first film adaptation was The War of the Worlds, produced in 1953 by George Pal, directed by Byron Haskin, and starring Gene Barry, set in contemporary Southern California and notable for its Academy-Award-winning special effects. In 2005, Steven Spielberg directed another film version starring Tom Cruise, set in contemporary America on the East Coast. A third film adaptation, directed by Rich Lee and starring rapper Ice Cube, was released in 2025, set in contemporary America. In 1978, Jeff Wayne produced a musical album of the story, with the voices of Richard Burton and David Essex. Wayne has also toured two live concert musical versions. That same year a stage adaptation by Albert Reyes was mounted at the Nat Horne Theatre in New York. An immersive experience of The War of the Worlds set to Jeff Wayne's score opened in London in 2019. The show uses a blend of virtual reality, volumetric holograms and live theatre. == Gallery of early illustrations==

File:War of the worlds illustration pearson.jpg|The Martian fighting machines attack (Warwick Goble 1898) File:War of the Worlds pg 141.jpg|The machines move (Warwick Goble 1898) File:War of the Worlds pg 231.jpg|The Martian itself (Warwick Goble 1898) File:The War of the Worlds by Warwick Goble 42.jpg|Narrator discovers the Martians are dead and expresses relief and gratitude (Warwick Goble 1898) File:The War of the Worlds by Henrique Alvim Corrêa, orginal graphic 03.jpg|Martian cylinder appears as a falling star (Henrique Alvim Corrêa 1906) File:The War of the Worlds by Henrique Alvim Corrêa, orginal graphic 04.jpg|The mysterious "thing" that has landed in the sand-pits (Henrique Alvim Corrêa 1906) File:The War of the Worlds by Henrique Alvim Corrêa, orginal graphic 07.jpg|The Martian heat ray incinerates the humans who approached the pit where the cylinder landed (Henrique Alvim Corrêa 1906) File:The War of the Worlds by Henrique Alvim Corrêa, orginal graphic 06.jpg|The Martians turn the heat ray on the crowds gathered near the pit, bringing "flaming death" (Henrique Alvim Corrêa 1906) File:The War of the Worlds by Henrique Alvim Corrêa, orginal graphic 12.jpg|Martian fighting machines in action (Henrique Alvim Corrêa 1906) File:The War of the Worlds by Henrique Alvim Corrêa, orginal graphic 14.jpg|Martian fighting machine struck by a shell (Henrique Alvim Corrêa 1906) File:The War of the Worlds by Henrique Alvim Corrêa, original graphic 15.jpg|Martian fighting machine attacks (Henrique Alvim Corrêa 1906) File:The War of the Worlds by Henrique Alvim Corrêa, orginal graphic 16.jpg|Martian fighting machine fires the black smoke (Henrique Alvim Corrêa 1906) File:The War of the Worlds by Henrique Alvim Corrêa, orginal graphic 13.jpg|A Flying Machine approaches HMS Thunder Child. (Henrique Alvim Corrêa 1906) File:Correa-Martians vs. Thunder Child.jpg|The warship HMS Thunder Child confronts a Martian fighting machine (Henrique Alvim Corrêa 1906) File:The War of the Worlds by Henrique Alvim Corrêa, orginal graphic 19.jpg|The Thunder Child downs a Tripod, only to get destroyed by them soon after. File:The War of the Worlds by Henrique Alvim Corrêa, orginal graphic 20.jpg|Martian cylinder strikes the house where the narrator and the curate took refuge (Henrique Alvim Corrêa 1906) File:War of the worlds Henrique Alvim Correa.jpg|A Martian handling machine used for construction and assembly tasks (Henrique Alvim Corrêa 1906) File:War of the worlds Henrique Alvim correa.jpg|Martians grab the curate with a mechanical tentacle (Henrique Alvim Corrêa 1906) File:The War of the Worlds by Henrique Alvim Corrêa, orginal graphic 24.jpg|Spreading Martian red weed (Henrique Alvim Corrêa 1906) File:The War of the Worlds by Henrique Alvim Corrêa, orginal graphic 25.jpg|Martian viewing a Drunken Crowd. (Henrique Alvim Corrêa 1906) File:The War of the Worlds by Henrique Alvim Corrêa, orginal graphic 26.jpg|London in ruins after the Martian attack (Henrique Alvim Corrêa 1906) File:The War of the Worlds by Henrique Alvim Corrêa, orginal graphic 27.jpg|An abandoned Handling Machine, plundered by Crows. (Henrique Alvim Corrêa 1906) File:H G Wells La guerre des mondes 1906 (page 233 crop).jpg|The fighting machines stand immobile in London as birds scavenge dead Martians (Henrique Alvim Corrêa 1906) File:The War of the Worlds by Henrique Alvim Corrêa, orginal graphic 31.jpg|Humans examine the advanced war machines left after the death of the Martians (Henrique Alvim Corrêa 1906) ==See also==