Work design

Interest in the question of what makes good work was largely initiated during the industrial revolution, when machine-operated work in large factories replaced smaller, craft-based industries. In 1776, Adam Smith popularized the concept of division of labor in his book The Wealth of Nations, which states that dividing production processes into different stages would enable workers to focus on specific tasks, increasing overall productivity. This idea was further developed by Frederick Winslow Taylor in the late 19th century with his highly influential theory of scientific management (sometimes referred to as Taylorism). Taylor argued that jobs should be broken down into the smallest possible parts and managers should specify the one best way that these tasks should be carried out. == Theoretical perspectives ==

Job characteristics model work is often characterised by restricted working conditions such as low autonomy, low task variety, and short task cycles. Consequently, turnover rates in call centres tend to be very high. job characteristics model is generally considered to be the dominant motivational theory of work design. • Skill variety – The degree to which a job involves a variety of activities, requiring the worker to develop a variety of skills and talents. Workers are more likely to have a more positive experience in jobs that require several different skills and abilities than when the jobs are elementary and routine. • Task identity – The degree to which the job requires completion of a whole and identifiable piece of work with a clear outcome. Workers are more likely have a more positive experience in a job when they are involved in the entire process rather than just being responsible for a part of the work. • Task significance – The degree to which a job has a substantial impact on the lives or work of others. Workers are more likely have a more positive experience in a job that substantially improves either psychological or physical well-being of others than a job that has limited effect on anyone else. • Autonomy – The degree to which the job provides the employee with significant freedom, independence, and discretion to plan out the work and determine the procedures in the job. For jobs with a high level of autonomy, the outcomes of the work depend on the workers' own efforts, initiatives, and decisions; rather than on the instructions from a manager or a manual of job procedures. In such cases, the jobholders experience greater personal responsibility for their own successes and failures at work. • Feedback – The degree to which a job incumbent has knowledge of results. When workers receive clear, actionable information about their work performance, they have better overall knowledge of the effect of their work activities, and what specific actions they need to take (if any) to improve their productivity. The central proposition of job characteristics theory - that is, that work characteristics affect attitudinal outcomes - is well established by meta analysis. However, some have criticized the use of job incumbents' perceptions to assess job characteristics, arguing that individuals' perceptions are constructions arising from social influences, such as the attitudes of their peers. Job characteristics theory has been described as the logical conclusion of efforts to understand how work can satisfy basic human needs. the idea that intrinsic job factors impact motivation sparked an interest in the ways in which jobs could be enriched which culminated in the job characteristics model. Sociotechnical systems is an organizational development approach which proposes that the technical and social aspects of work should be jointly optimized when designing work. Application of sociotechnical theory has typically focused on group rather than individual work design, and is responsible for the rise of autonomous work groups, which are still popular today. For example, high pressure and demands at work may lead to a range of negative outcomes such as psychological stress, burnout, and compromised physical health. Additionally, the model suggests that high levels of job control can buffer or reduce the adverse health effects of high job demands. Instead, this high decision latitude can lead to feelings of mastery and confidence, which in turn aid the individual in coping with further job demands. The job demands-control model is widely regarded as a classic work design theory, spurring large amounts of research. However, the model has been criticized for its focus on a narrow set of work characteristics. Additionally, while strong support has been found for the negative effects of high job demands, some researchers have argued that the buffering effect of high job control on the negative effects of demand is less convincing. Job demands-resources model is widely recognised as a stressful, emotionally trying, and dangerous occupation. This may be because the job demands of police officers (e.g., role conflict, role ambiguity, role overload) outweigh the job resources available (e.g., input into decision making, organizational support). The job demands-resources model was introduced as a theoretical extension to the job demands-control model, and recognizes that other features of work in addition to control and support might serve as resources to counter job demands. Examples of the resources identified in this model include career opportunities, participation in decision making, and social support. Relational job design theory Relational job design theory is a popular contemporary approach to work design developed by American organizational psychologist Adam Grant, which builds on the foundations laid by Hackman & Oldham's (1976) Rather than focusing on the characteristics of tasks which make up jobs, relational work design is concerned with the 'relational architecture' of the workplace that influences workers' interpersonal relationships and connections with beneficiaries of the work. In this context, beneficiaries refer to the people whom the worker believes are affected by his or her work. An employer can design the relational architecture of the workplace as a means of motivating workers to care about making a prosocial difference. • Contact with beneficiaries – This refers to opportunities for employees to communicate and interact with the people who benefit from their work. Increased interaction with clients will result in employees will become more emotionally engaged "as a result of first-hand exposure to their actions affecting a living, breathing human being" (p. 307). autonomy, complex work with low supervision) can promote learning and development in workers. Some of the tasks are easier to measure than other tasks, so one can study which tasks should be bundled together. While the original model was focused on the incentives versus insurance trade-off when agents are risk-averse, subsequent work has also studied the case of risk-neutral agents who are protected by limited liability. In this framework, researchers have studied whether tasks that are in direct conflict with each other (for instance, selling products that are imperfect substitutes) should be delegated to the same agent or to different agents. The optimal task assignment depends on whether the tasks are to be performed simultaneously or sequentially. == Measurement and diagnostics ==

Job Diagnostic Survey (JDS) The Job Diagnostic Survey (JDS) was developed by Hackman and Oldham in 1975 to assess perceptions of the core job characteristics outlined in job characteristics theory. The JDS consists of seven scales measuring variety, autonomy, task identity, significance, job feedback, feedback from others, and dealing with others. Additionally, the psychometric properties of the JDS have been brought into question, including a low internal consistency and problems with the factor structure. Multimethod Job Design Questionnaire (MJDQ) The Multimethod Job Design Questionnaire (MJDQ) was developed by Michael Campion in 1988 to assess what were, at the time, the main interdisciplinary approaches to work design (i.e. motivational, mechanistic, biological, perceptual motor). Intended to address the weaknesses of the JDS, the MJDQ suffered from both measurement problems and gaps in construct measurement. Work Design Questionnaire (WDQ) The ''Work Design Questionnaire (WDQ) The WDQ has since been translated into several languages other than English, including German, Italian, and Spanish. == Antecedents of work design behaviours ==

Decisions about the organization of work are typically made by those in positions of formal authority, such as executives, managers, and team leaders. These decisions, which usually regard the division of labor and the integration of effort, create work designs in which employees have assigned tasks and responsibilities. the work design-related decisions of individuals are shaped by their motivation and knowledge, skills, and abilities. These proximal processes apply to decision making in both people in formal positions of authority (i.e. managers) as well as individual employees. Regardless of an individual's motivation or KSAs regarding a particular work design-related decision, that individual can only implement change if they have the opportunity to do so. Additionally, there is evidence that demographic characteristics can affect the work design decision of employees. Gender and ethnicity can make some workers more vulnerable to low-quality work designs, with data showing that female workers have less autonomy, fewer development opportunities, and reduced career possibilities. Evidence also suggests that migrant workers often have less enriched work designs compared to non-migrant workers. • Competence and learning – Karasek and Theorell as well as an employee's choice of occupation. Contextual influences • International – Organizations operate today under the influence of globalization and market liberalization. Additionally, increased access to new suppliers in other countries, especially developing countries, has increased the potential for organizations to influence work design in these countries. • National – Organizations are subject to the economic, cultural, and institutional context of the country they operate in. For example, managers and employees from cultures with a preference for structure and formal rules might prefer work designs which are clearly defined. Finally, national institutions such as trade unions, national employment policies, and training systems policies may have direct or indirect effects on work design. For example, occupations which value independence (e.g. police detectives) are likely to reward actions which demonstrate initiative and creativity, giving rise to job characteristics such as autonomy and variety. In contrast, managers working for an organization that aims to gain competitive advantage through quality and innovation may be motivated to provide employees with opportunities to use specialist knowledge and skills, resulting in enriched work designs. • Work groups – Drawing on the sociotechnical theory and team effectiveness literature, some authors argue that key characteristics of work groups (i.e. composition, interdependence, autonomy, and leadership) can influence the work design of individual team members, although it is acknowledged that evidence on this particular topic is limited. ==Strategies for work (re)design==

Managerial strategies Job rotation Job rotation is a job design process by which employee roles are rotated in order to promote flexibility and tenure in the working environment. Through job rotation, employees laterally mobilize and serve their tasks in different organizational levels; when an individual experiences different posts and responsibilities in an organization, the ability to evaluate his or her capabilities in the organization increases. By design, it is intended to enhance motivation, develop workers' outlook, increase productivity, improve the organization's performance on various levels by its multi-skilled workers, and provides new opportunities to improve the attitude, thought, capabilities and skills of workers. Job enlargement Hulin and Blood (1968) define job enlargement as the process of allowing individual workers to determine their own pace (within limits), to serve as their own inspectors by giving them responsibility for quality control, to repair their own mistakes, to be responsible for their own machine set-up and repair, and to attain choice of method. By working in a larger scope, as Hulin and Blood state, workers are pushed to adapting new tactics, techniques, and methodologies on their own. referred to the addition of interrelated tasks as 'horizontal job loading,' or, in other words, widening the breadth of an employee's responsibilities. Job enrichment Job enrichment increases the employees' autonomy over the planning and execution of their own work, leading to self-assigned responsibility. Because of this, job enrichment has the same motivational advantages of job enlargement, however it has the added benefit of granting workers autonomy. Frederick Herzberg These changes are not negotiated with the employer and may not even be noticed by the manager. When work roles are defined by organizations they do not always adequately address the problems faced by the profession. When employees notice this, they can attempt to redefine the role through innovation, improving the resilience of the profession in handling future situations. Task revision Task revision is seen as a form of counter-role behavior in that it is about resistance to defective work procedures, such as inaccurate job descriptions and dysfunctional expectations. However, a work environment which is supportive of deviation from social norms could facilitate task revision. This can be as simple as suggesting more effective ways of doing things within the organization. When individuals stand up and express innovating ideas, the organization may benefit from these fresh perspectives. The most common forms of i-deals are flexible working hours and opportunities for personal development. These arrangements may be put in place because an employer values the negotiating employee, and by granting the i-deal the likelihood of retaining the employee is increased. Additionally, these behaviours typically go beyond what is required of the employee in their work role. == See also ==