Wa State

For a long time, headman tribes were dispersed around the Wa mountainous area, with no unified governance and gradually the region became separated from the tribal military control of the Dai people. British rule in Burma did not administer the Wa States and the border with China was left undefined. From the late 1940s, during the Chinese Civil War, remnants of the Chinese National Revolutionary Army retreated to territory within Burma as the communists took over mainland China. Within the mountain region Kuomintang forces of the Eighth Army 237 division and 26th Army 93 division held their position for two decades in preparation for a counterattack towards mainland China. Under pressure from the United Nations, the counterattack was cancelled and the army was recalled to northern Thailand and later back to Taiwan; however, some troops decided to remain within Burma. East of the Salween river, indigenous tribal guerrilla groups exercised control with the support of the Communist Party of Burma. During the 1960s, the Communist Party of Burma lost its base of operations within central Burma, and with the assistance of the Chinese communists, expanded within the border regions in the northeast. Many intellectual youths from China joined the Communist Party of Burma, and these forces also absorbed many local guerrillas. The Burmese communists gained control over Pangkham, which became their base of operations. At the end of the 1980s, the ethnic minorities of northeast Burma became politically separated from the Communist Party of Burma. On 17 April 1989, Bao Youxiang's armed forces announced their separation from the Communist Party of Burma, and formed the United Myanmar Ethnicities Party, which later became the United Wa State Party. On 18 May, the United Wa State Army signed a ceasefire agreement with the State Law and Order Restoration Council, which replaced Ne Win's military regime following the 8888 Uprising. After the ceasefire, the Myanmar government began to call the region "Shan State Special Region No. 2 (Wa Region)" ; ). In 1990s, Wa State obtained the Southern area by force. From 1999 to 2002, 80,000 former opium farmers from the northern area of Wa State were forcefully resettled into the more fertile south for food production, improving food security and laying the groundwork for a ban on drug production in Wa State. Some groups report that thousands died as a result of resettlement. During this time, peace initiative proposals by Wa State were rejected by the Myanmar government. The government warned on 27 April 2010 that the WHP program could push Myanmar and Wa State into further conflict. In 2012, Wa State began a major road construction program to link all townships with asphalt roads. By 2014, asphalt roads ran through the northern townships of Wa State and connected the Wa townships of Kunma, Nam Tit, and Mengmao to the Chinese towns of Cangyuan and Ximeng. When fighting in northern Shan State escalated in late October and early November in 2023, Wa State took a neutral position urging on 1 Nov for a ceasefire. The UWSP has again stated that they would retaliate against any military action against Wa. Tensions between Wa State and Thailand increased in November 2024 over the presence of UWSA bases allegedly encroaching on Thai territory. == Politics, society and law ==

Wa State is divided into northern and southern regions which are separated from one another, with the southern region bordering Thailand and consisting of 200,000 people. The total area of the region controlled by Wa State is approximately 27,000 kilometers. Southwest Mandarin and Wa are widely spoken by the population, with the language of education being Standard Chinese. Television broadcasts within Wa State are broadcast in both Mandarin and Wa. Commodities within Wa State are brought over from China, and the renminbi is commonly used for exchanges. China Mobile has cellular coverage over some parts of Wa State. their relationship was based on peaceful coexistence and Wa State recognised the sovereignty of the central government over all of Myanmar. Labour camps exist in Wa State and relatives of those who are imprisoned or conscripted are often taken hostage by the state. The state is governed by a network of Maoist insurgents, traditional leaders such as headmen, businessmen, and traders, without democratic elections or the rule of law. Most people do not have Chinese or Myanmar ID cards, but Wa State ID cards are often recognised in those countries. It is easy for citizens to enter them if they avoid the official border crossings. There used to be up to 100,000 Chinese nationals residing in Wa State, many of them engaging in business. In 2021, the Chinese government ordered them to return to their homeland to combat online fraud allegedly committed by many of them. The Chinese exodus has had a negative impact on the Wa economy. == Administrative divisions ==

Wa State is divided into districts (; ; ), special townships (; ; ) and an administrative affairs committee. Each district is further divided into townships (; ; ). Below these are village tract-level administrations: village tracts (; ; ) and streets (; ). In the table above, names in apostrophes are in Wa/Mandarin order. Streets are metaphorical urban-type division name analogical to subdistricts of China and should not be understood literally. They are further subdivided into groups. Villages are rural counterparts of groups and are below townships. In general, the Wa names of divisions follow the Romance naming order. For example, Veng Yaong Leen means Yaong Leen Township and is a veng (township) instead of a '''' (natural settlement). In the sections below, names in bold indicate district seats. Names with "quotation marks" are pinyin transcriptions of Mandarin while names in italics are Burmese transcriptions of Mandarin. Although Mandarin is one of the four working languages of Wa State, some Mandarin administrative names are non-canonical. For example, and are two different transcriptions of the same official Wa or Dai name of Pang Yang Township. Northern area Wa State's northern area is divided into four counties and one special township. Each district is further divided into townships; there are 25 townships in total. ; Districts • (, ): • : 1. (, , district seat) • : 2. (, ) • : 3. (, ) • : 4. (, ) • (, ): • : 5. (, , district seat) • : 6. (, ) • : 7. (, ) • : 8. (, ) • : 9. (, ) • : 10. (, ) • : 11. (, ) • : 12. (, ) • : 13. (, ) • : 14. (, ) • (, ): • : 15. (, ) • : 16. (, , district seat) • : 17. (, ) • : 18. (, ) • : 19. (, ) • (, ): • : 20. (, ) • : 21. (, , district seat) • : 22. (, ) • : 23. (, ) • : 24. (, ) • : 25. (, ) ; Special township • Pangkham Special Township (, ): • :Guanghong Village tract (, ) • :Na Lawt Village tract (, ) • :Nan Phat Village tract (, ) • :Tawng Aw Village tract (, ) • :Yaong Ting Village tract (, ) • :Man Mao Village tract (, ) Wa State overlaps with eight de jure townships designated by the Burmese government. The geographic relationship between townships (second level) and special townships (first level) of Wa State and townships of Shan State are listed below: ; Hopang Township of Shan State • Ho Pang Township • Nang Teung Township • Nawi Township • Pang Long Township ; Mongmao Township of Shan State • Kaung Ming Sang Township • Man Ton Township • Ling Haw Township ; Pangwaun Township of Shan State • Ai Chun Township (Cawng Miang) • Long Tan Township • Panwai Township • Taoh Mie Township (Kunma) • Wangleng Township (Yaong Leen) ; Namphan Township of Shan State • Yingpan Township (Kawn Mau) • Paleen Township ; Pangsang Township of Shan State • Klawngpa Township • Man Shiang Township • Nakao Township • Nawng Khiet Township • Pangkham Special Township ; Matman Township of Shan State • Pang Yang Township ; Mong Yang Township of Shan State • Hotao Township • Meng Phing Township • Mong Ka Township • Mong Pawk Township • Nam Phai Township ; Mong Khet Township of Shan State • Mong Ngen Township (Mong Ning) On 15 January 2024, Hopang and Pan Lon are officially transferred to Wa State by Myanmar's government. Southern area Wa State's southern area is administered by the Fourth Theater Command as the "171st military region" and enjoys a high degree of local autonomy. For example, the UWSP allowed it to implement its own COVID-19 policies. The region is not part of traditional Wa territory, but was granted in 1989 by the then-ruling Burmese military junta for the UWSA's cooperation in their efforts against drug warlord Khun Sa. These territories were originally inhabited by the Austroasiatic Tai Loi peoples, but now include significant Lahu and Shan communities, as well as Wa settlers. The Southern area is administrated by the Southern Administrative Affairs Committee (, ). The area can further divided into 6 townships: • (, , area seat) • (, ) • (, ) • (, ) • (, ) • (, ) Treatment of original inhabitants In recent years tens of thousands of people (according to the Lahu National Development Organization claims 125,933 from 1999 to 2001 alone) have resettled from northern Wa State and central Shan State to the southern area, often due to pressure by the Wa government. These actions were intended to strengthen the Wa government's position there, especially the Mong Yawn valley which is surrounded by mountains on all sides is a strategically important location. Wa people were also relocated from villages on mountain peaks to the surrounding valleys, officially to offer the residents an alternative to the cultivation of opium. After the resettlement, the Wa government allowed ethnic Wa settlers to grow opium for three more years and sell it freely. Serious human rights violations were reported during the resettlement and many people have died, around 10,000 alone during the rains of 2000 since the Wa settlers were not accustomed to tropical diseases like malaria in the warmer southern area. The original inhabitants of the area have been discriminated against by the settlers; their belongings were seized by them without compensation. Many abuses occur, including enslaving of the ones who complain about the Wa government. They have to work in the fields with chained-up legs. When a minority person cannot give enough money to the rulers, they can sell children seven years or older as soldiers to the United Wa State Army. Due to these harsh living conditions, many had no other choice but to leave their hometowns. == Geography and economy ==

The region is mainly mountainous, with deep valleys. The lowest points are approximately above sea level, with the highest mountains over . Initially Wa State was heavily reliant on opium production. With Chinese assistance, there has been a move towards growing rubber and tea plantations. Wa State cultivates 220,000 acres of rubber. there is also cultivation of wet rice, corn and vegetables. Dozens died during the resettlement due to disease and road accidents. The proven tin ore reserves of Wa State amount to more than 50 million tons, currently 95% of the tin mine production of Myanmar comes from there, around one sixth of the world production. Additionally, there is also a thriving industry around sectors like prostitution and gambling in the capital Pangkham that are related to tourism from China which was thriving before the COVID-19 pandemic. The region was able to vaccinate nearly all of its population against the virus by July 2021, one of the earliest dates in the world. In general, the state of development of Wa State is considerably higher than in the government-controlled areas of Myanmar, which is especially true for its capital. Wa State is economically dependent on China, which supports it financially and provides military and civilian advisors and weapons. It shares 82 miles (133 km) of frontier with China. The Myanmar kyat is not legal tender anywhere in the Wa State. In the north, the Chinese yuan is legal tender, whilst the baht is legal tender in the south. Illicit drug trade The United Wa State Army (UWSA) is among the largest narcotics trafficking organizations in Southeast Asia. The UWSA cultivated vast areas of land for the opium poppy, which was later refined to heroin. Methamphetamine trafficking was also important to the economy of Wa State. The money from the opium was primarily used for purchasing weapons which continues to be the case to some extent. At the same time, while opium poppy cultivation in Myanmar had declined year-on-year since 2015, cultivation area increased by 33% totalling 40,100 hectares alongside an 88% increase in yield potential to 790 metric tonnes in 2022 according to latest data from the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) Myanmar Opium Survey 2022 With that said, the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) has also warned that opium production in Myanmar may rise again if the economic crunch brought on by COVID-19 and the country's February 1 military coup persists, with significant public health and security consequences for much of Asia. In August 1990, government officials began drafting a plan to end drug production and trafficking in Wa State. According to an interview with Wa officials in 1994, Bao Youyi (Tax Kuad Rang; also known as Bao Youyu) became wanted by the Chinese police for his involvement in drug trafficking. As a result, Bao Youxiang and Zhao Nyi-Lai went to Cangyuan Va Autonomous County of China and signed the Cangyuan Agreement with local officials, which stated that, "No drugs will go into the international society (from Wa State); no drugs will go into China (from Wa State); no drugs will go into Burmese government-controlled areas (from Wa State)." However, the agreement did not mention whether or not Wa State could sell drugs to insurgent groups. In 1997, the United Wa State Party officially proclaimed that Wa State would be drug-free by the end of 2005. Anti-drug strategies involved opium substitution programs for farmers, seeking alternative revenue sources in the area, roadbuilding to improve access to the hills, strict enforcement, and a population resettlement program. The production of crystal meth of high quality as well as heroin is still thriving and worth billions of dollars as of 2021. Cheaper ya ba tablets are made by neighboring rebel groups which depend on the Wa for raw materials – namely precursor chemicals sourced from the chemical industry in China and chemical industry in India which enter Myanmar directly or by transit through the Golden Triangle (Southeast Asia) and specifically Lao PDR via Viet Nam and Thailand. The regional synthetic drug production and trafficking industry, in which Wa State plays an important role, has become a major source of illegal drugs now exported across the region and beyond. == See also ==