House of Zhu

The founder of the house was Zhu Yuanzhang, born in 1328 to a poor Chinese peasant family in Zhongli County (, present-day Fengyang County) in Anhui, located in central China on the lower reaches of the Yangtze River, during the Yuan dynasty. After losing his parents and two brothers to an epidemic in 1344, Zhu spent time in a Buddhist monastery and also resorted to begging for survival. In 1352, he joined the Red Turban Rebellion and quickly rose to a prominent position among the rebels. He defeated rival rebel leaders and Yuan armies, ultimately forcing the last Yuan emperor to flee from China proper. In 1368, Zhu declared himself emperor of the Ming dynasty in Nanjing and took "Hongwu", or "Vastly Martial", as his era name. By 1381, he had successfully conquered the entire country. In 1361, the rebel Song emperor Han Lin'er had appointed Zhu as the Duke of Wu (), and in 1364 Zhu had declared himself the King of Wu (). Despite this, he did not take on the title of emperor of the Wu dynasty, but instead chose the name Ming ()—meaning "Bright" or "Radiant"—as the name for his new dynasty, with the full name Da Ming ()—meaning "Great Radiance". At the time, the name Ming held various political connotations in China. Its association with brightness and glow evoked the elements of fire, the color red, and the south, all of which symbolized opposition to the ruling Yuan dynasty. This was because in the Chinese system of five elements, the similarity between the words yuan and xuan (dark) linked it to water, the color black, and the north. The geographical location of the Mongols in the north and the Chinese in the south further solidified this association. Additionally, the Hongwu Emperor partially adopted the title of "Great King of Light" (Da Ming wang; ) from Han Shantong, father of Han Lin'er and leader of the White Lotus sect. The term Ming was also used to refer to the Mingjiao, or the "Bright Religion", which was influenced by Manichaeism and played a role in the ideology of the White Lotus and the Red Turban rebellion. By claiming to embody the rebels' belief in the coming of Ming wang, the King of Light, the Hongwu Emperor justified his removal of the Han family from power. Finally, the Emperor's pragmatic adoption of Mongol government practices was reflected in the choice of the dynasty name—the use of an abstract concept as a dynasty name was a non-Chinese tradition that originated with the Jurchens (Jin dynasty, "Golden") and was later adopted by the Mongols (Yuan dynasty, "Beginning"). ==Ming dynasty==

(), depicting urban life of the Ming dynasty. Under the rule of the new dynasty, China recovered from the damages caused by decades of warfare during the previous Yuan dynasty. The empire flourished and became a prosperous and wealthy state. By the mid-15th century, there was significant economic and cultural development, especially in the southern and coastal regions. The Ming built irrigation systems, farmers cultivated cotton, and the production of silk and cotton fabrics, glass, and porcelain expanded. In the early 15th century, Ming China conquered Manchuria in the north and Đại Việt (present-day northern Vietnam) in the south, although its rule there lasted only about two decades, while also reviving trade and diplomatic relations with Japan, India, and Southeast Asia. This revival was made possible by a large fleet of long-distance trading junks, which by the mid-16th century became frequent targets for Chinese and Japanese pirates who also raided coastal settlements. The second serious threat came from constant attacks by the Mongols in the north. To protect against these raids, the Great Wall of China was built and over five thousand kilometers of trenches were constructed. In January 1556, a strong earthquake struck the northern provinces of China, resulting in the deaths of approximately 830,000 people. This disaster had a significant impact on China's economy in the second half of the 16th century, leading to numerous peasant uprisings. The Manchus took advantage of the weakened Chinese state, and occupied the northern part of the country in 1644. After the Manchu-led Qing dynasty conquered northern China, the Ming government continued to rule the southern part of the country for several decades until 1661. The remaining members of the Ming imperial family governed the southern provinces, and historians refer to this period as the Southern Ming. The last Ming ruler, the Yongli Emperor, fled to Burma in 1661 and was killed there early the following year. ==Emperors==

Government The Ming emperors were the ultimate leaders of the country and government, responsible for both military and civilian administration. In theory, the emperor held authority over all officials and generals, and his decrees were followed by the entire nation. The Hongwu Emperor held power very tightly, but at the cost of massive purges in 1380. This also led to the dissolution of the Central Secretariat, whose leader served as the de facto prime minister. Subsequently, the emperor assumed full decision-making power for all matters beyond the jurisdiction of individual ministries. The third emperor, Yongle Emperor, personally oversaw both major and minor issues, and became agitated when he was not kept informed of even the most insignificant matters. Subsequent emperors after the Yongle Emperor lacked the decisiveness of their predecessors, and their power was limited by traditional expectations. The emperors were not expected to take the lead in determining the direction of the country. Instead, they were presented with memoranda and demands that already included proposed solutions. The ruler's role was to either approve the proposed solutions or reach an agreement with the submitters on an alternative solution. Similarly, the emperor's appointments of officials and generals were based on proposals from the Ministry of Personnel and the Ministry of War. In the case of high dignitaries, the emperor was given a choice between two to three candidates. Important matters were discussed at official audiences or informal meetings, and it was necessary to have a broad consensus among court dignitaries before making any major decisions. After the Central Secretariat was abolished, there was no longer a position equivalent to the prime minister. The Hongwu Emperor explicitly forbade its reinstatement, making the emperor the sole authority above the ministers, Censorate, and military offices. The smooth functioning of the government was therefore dependent on the emperor's active participation. The emperor's grand secretaries, or high-ranking eunuchs took on the role of coordinator at the top of the administrative apparatus. They were responsible for coordinating the interests of different departments and consulted with the emperor daily on matters under discussion. Their actual power was dependent on the emperor's approval of their decisions. They did not have the authority to issue orders to the ministers on their own. in the Forbidden City, Beijing The majority of the Ming emperors resided in the Forbidden City, a 72-hectare complex of palaces and buildings built in Beijing. Prior to the Yongle Emperor moving the capital in 1420, the emperor's residence was located in a similar complex in Nanjing. Succession Zhu Biao, the eldest son and heir of the Hongwu Emperor, died before his father's death. As a result, the Emperor appointed Zhu Biao's eldest surviving son, Zhu Yunwen (later the Jianwen Emperor), as his successor. In 1398, a new government led by the young emperor took office and immediately began to aggressively intervene against the Emperor's uncles. This ultimately led to the rebellion of the strongest uncle, Zhu Di, in 1399. In the ensuing civil war, known as the Jingnan campaign, Zhu Di emerged victorious, and in 1402, his troops captured the capital city of Nanjing. The Jianwen Emperor perished in the fire that engulfed the imperial palace. The new emperor, Zhu Di, made efforts to erase the memory of his predecessor by denying his legitimacy and even retroactively canceling the era of Jianwen. During the reign of subsequent emperors, the throne was passed down through the principle of primogeniture, where the oldest living son or closest male relative would become the new monarch. This system, however, faced a problem in 1449 when Emperor Yingzong was captured by the Mongols. After some hesitation, the court decided to crown the Emperor's brother, the Jingtai Emperor, as the new ruler. The following year, Emperor Yingzong was released from captivity and spent the next seven years under house arrest. In early 1457, the Jingtai Emperor fell ill and, having no heir, Emperor Yingzong was able to stage a palace coup and reclaim the throne. Shortly after, the Jingtai Emperor died. After the death of the Zhengde Emperor in 1521, a serious conflict arose due to the lack of a direct heir. His cousin Zhu Houcong (later the Jiajing Emperor) was chosen as the new ruler. The ministers proposed that the Jiajing Emperor be adopted as the deceased emperor's son in order to maintain the succession of the imperial family in the father-son line. The Jiajing Emperor refused and instead insisted on posthumously appointing his father as emperor, in order to elevate his father's status to match his own. This disagreement, known as the Great Rites Controversy, lasted for several years and was ultimately resolved by the Emperor through force—including the execution and exile of protesting officials. This conflict greatly impacted the beginning of the Jiajing Emperor's reign. During the reign of the Wanli Emperor, a prolonged succession dispute occurred. Despite the customary practice and succession order, the Emperor refused to appoint his eldest son, Zhu Changluo (later the Taichang Emperor), as heir to the throne. Instead, he favored his third son, Zhu Changxun, who was born to his favorite concubine. This dispute lasted for over fifteen years until the Emperor finally yielded to pressure from officials and followed the proper succession rules. The stubbornness of both sides caused a rift between the Emperor and the government, leading to significant damage to the administration of the empire. The Emperor stopped meeting with ministers and refused to appoint new officials to vacant positions, further exacerbating the situation. ==Other members of the family==

The Hongwu Emperor appointed his eldest son, Zhu Biao, as his successor to the throne (; taizi). His other sons were given titles of princes (; qinwang; literally 'prince of imperial blood', also simply ; wang) and were sent to the provinces with a large entourage and broad, primarily military powers after reaching the age of about twenty. Despite their titles, they did not rule over the regions as feudal princes; local officials continued to be subject to the central government. For the Emperor, they represented a support for his personal power independent of the regular civilian and military hierarchy; after the Emperor's death, the new government attempted to limit their influence, which provoked a rebellion by one of them—Zhu Di. The Yongle Emperor himself limited the power of the princes in the regions and after the unsuccessful rebellion of Prince Zhu Gaoxu in 1426, they lost their political significance. Apart from the princes, other members of the imperial family were excluded from the administration of the country. It was not until 1595, when the number of imperial family members had grown to tens of thousands, that they were allowed to participate in the civil service examinations, but they could not be appointed to positions in the capital city. During the reign of the Hongwu Emperor's successors, the eldest son was traditionally appointed as the heir to the throne at a young age. Other imperial sons were given the title of prince and were sent to different regions. The heir to the throne would hold the title, while the other sons were known as princes of commanderies (; junwang). In the following generations, male members of the family were granted titles in six decreasing levels ("defenders-general of the state" zhenguo jiangjun, "bulwark-generals of the state" fuguo jiangjun, "supporters-general of the state" fengguo jiangjun, "defenders-commandant of the state" zhenguo zhongwei, "bulwark-commandants of the state" fuguo zhongwei, and finally "supporter-commandants of the state" fengguo zhongwei), with each male member of the house holding at least the last title. In the year of the Hongwu Emperor's death (1398), there were 58 members of the family with titles. By the beginning of the 15th century, this number had increased to 127, and by the end of the century, there were over 2000 members with titles. These family members received ample support from the state treasury, as well as judicial immunity and various privileges based on their titles and status. Additionally, from the mid-15th century, they also began to acquire land ownership. According to late Ming authors, there were over 100,000 male descendants of the Hongwu Emperor during their time. It was not only sons who received titles and pensions, but also daughters of the imperial family and their husbands. As the number of house members grew, the costs of their material security significantly increased, primarily affecting the northern regions of China where most of the family resided. For example, in 1562, Shanxi Province spent more money on supporting the house members from land tax revenue than on the expenses of provincial, prefectural, and county offices combined. In some northern counties, almost half of all tax income went towards supporting the house members. == Notes ==