Peruvian protests (2022–2023)

Centralismo , one of Peru's poorest cities located near the world's fourth largest gold mine This practice has continued throughout Peru's history and has resulted with large levels of economic inequality, political alienation and other disparities in rural regions, with Lima acquiring the majority of socioeconomic benefits in the nation. As globalization intensified through the twentieth century, the gap between urban and rural areas increased, with larger cities increasing their ability to connect to the economy and increasing their wealth while smaller cities experienced resource and human capital flight towards the larger cities. Many Peruvians living in rural areas could not vote until 1979 when the constitution allowed illiterate individuals to vote. Despite this, between 1919 and 2021, eleven of eighteen democratically elected presidents of Peru were from Lima. Wealth generated between 1990 and 2020 was not equally distributed throughout the country. As a result, there were significant disparities in living standards between the more-developed capital city of Lima and similar coastal regions, while rural provinces remained impoverished. By the 2020s, the existing disparities in Peru caused a "globalization fatigue" according to Asensio, resulting in a polarization between rural and urban areas that saw differing priorities with lifestyle, economics and politics. This divide created by centralismo would be a contributing factor to the protests. Obstructive Congress During the presidencies of Ollanta Humala, Pedro Pablo Kuczynski and Martín Vizcarra, the right-wing Congress led by the daughter of the former Peruvian president Alberto Fujimori, Keiko Fujimori, obstructed many of the presidents' actions. The political legacy of the Fujimori family was assumed by Keiko after her father Alberto, who instituted Plan Verde and oversaw the Grupo Colina death squad during the internal conflict in Peru, was sentenced to prison for human rights abuses. During their majority in congress, Fujimorists "earned a reputation as hardline obstructionists for blocking initiatives popular with Peruvians aimed at curbing the nation’s rampant corruption" according to the Associated Press. According to Walter Albán, head of Transparency International Peru, Congress has been infiltrated by criminal groups that obstruct reforms to maintain their status and parliamentary immunity, while Human Rights Watch said that Congress was more focused on personal gain and vote trading instead of issues facing the nation. Martín Vizcarra, Kuczynski's first vice president, then assumed office in March 2018. Amid the COVID-19 pandemic in Peru, President Vizcarra was impeached in September 2020 and a month later removed from office. Thousands of citizens then protested against Vizcarra's impeachment. President of Congress, Manuel Merino, faced criticism regarding how he hastily pushed for impeachment proceedings against Vizcarra, especially since he would assume the presidency upon Vizcarra's removal. Renowned reporter Gustavo Gorriti reported on 12 September 2020 that Merino had contacted the Commanding General of the Peruvian Navy, Fernando Cerdán, notifying him that he would attempt to impeach Vizcarra and assume the presidency. Minister of Defense Jorge Chávez confirmed that Merino had tried to establish support with the military. Francisco Sagasti was made President of Congress on 16 November and thus succeeded Merino as president on 17 November per the presidential line of succession, since both vice presidential positions were vacated by Vizcarra in 2018 and Mercedes Aráoz in May 2020. Castillo presidency Sagasti served as president until Castillo was elected in the 2021 general election, with Fujimori losing her third consecutive presidential bid. The 2021 election saw many right-wing candidates, with business groups, political parties and the majority of media organizations in Peru collaborating with Fujimori's campaign by appealing to fear when discussing political opponents. Some broadcast television channels openly supported Fujimori's candidacy as well. Reuters wrote that El Comercio, one of the largest media organizations in South America, "has generally backed Fujimori". Fujimori received support from Lima's elite, evangelical Christians, businesses, media organizations, and the armed forces. Asensio writes that Castillo, being recognized as a "true Peruvian" by his supporters, was able to establish support by saying he would reverse the favoritism of Lima and defending regional rights. Multiple attempts to prevent Castillo from the entering the office of the presidency or to later remove him occurred, beginning shortly after election results were determined. Following reports of Castillo's apparent victory, Fujimori and her supporters made claims of electoral fraud, leading obstructionist efforts to overturn the election with support of citizens in Lima. Many business groups and politicians refused to recognize Castillo's ascent to the presidency, with those among the more affluent, including former military officers and wealthy families, demanded new elections, promoted calls for a military coup, and used rhetoric to support their allegations of fraud. with legislators attempting to impeach multiple times using political avenues. Due to broadly interpreted impeachment wording in the Constitution of Peru (1993), Congress can impeach the president on the vague grounds of "moral incapacity", effectively making the legislature more powerful than the executive branch. In February 2022, it was reported that Fujimorists and politicians close to Fujimori organized a meeting at the Casa Andina hotel in Lima with the assistance of the German liberal organization Friedrich Naumann Foundation, with those present including President of Congress Maricarmen Alva, at which plans to remove Castillo from office were discussed. Alva had already shared her readiness to assume the presidency if Castillo were to be vacated from the position and a leaked Telegram group chat of the board of directors of Congress that she heads revealed plans coordinated to oust Castillo. By December 2022, Congress had begun motions to attempt the impeachment of Castillo for a third time; he was involved with six different criminal investigations and had already named five separate cabinets to serve under him. Castillo attempts to dissolve Congress and PNP rejecting the actions of Castillo Before 7 December 2022, a march called "Toma de Lima" or "Taking of Lima" was called, originally a meeting in Plaza Bolognesi with the aim of closing the congress and expressing their support for Pedro Castillo. This march was organized by the National Assembly of the Peoples, an organization affiliated with the officials, whose meeting in November of that year was televised. The Agrarian and Rural Front of Peru confirmed their collaboration in the scheduled march. On 7 December 2022, Congress was expected to file a motion of censure against Castillo, accusing him of "permanent moral incapacity". Before the legislative body could gather to file its motion, Castillo announced the dissolution of Congress and enacted an immediate curfew. Moments after Castillo's speech, multiple ministers resigned from his government, including Prime Minister Betssy Chávez. The Constitutional Court released a statement: "No one owes obedience to a usurping government and Mr. Pedro Castillo has made an ineffective coup d'état. The Armed Forces are empowered to restore the constitutional order." The Armed Forces also issued a statement rejecting Castillo's actions and calling for the maintenance of stability in Peru. Rejecting Castillo's actions to dissolve the legislative body, Congress gathered and voted to remove Castillo from office due to "moral incapacity" with 101 votes in favor, 6 against and 10 abstentions. It was announced that First Vice President Dina Boluarte, who rejected Castillo's actions, would take her oath of office for the presidency at 3:00 pm PET. In an IEP poll following Castillo's attempt to dissolve Congress, of respondents, 44% approved of Castillo's actions, 53% disapproved and 3% had no opinion or comment, with the majority of support for Castillo's actions being among rural and lower class Peruvians. For Castillo's supporters, Congress performed a coup against the president. In addition, they considered Dina Boluarte a "traitor", "dictator" and "usurper" after her subsequent assumption as the new president of the republic, based on the promise of the then vice president: "If the president is vacated I will go with the president". In this way, supporters of the former president encouraged the prompt release of Castillo and an advance of elections. Huancayo, Tacna, Jaén, Moquegua, Ilo, Puno, and Chota, where Castillo grew up. == Timeline ==

Protests begin Lima is one of the cities that were summoned. After the message to the nation, it was denounced that the Minister of the Interior, Willy Huerta, ordered the doors of the congress to be opened, which were closed, so that the summoned protesters could storm the congress. However, due to the failure of Castillo's actions and the subsequent vacancy by the Congress of the Republic, the demonstrations increased. The RPP outlet considered the pro-government meeting as the largest since Castillo came to power. Panic buying was registered by the population fearing an escalation of events. Arequipa The head of the National Directorate of Intelligence (DINI), General Wilson Barrantes Mendoza, met with President Boluarte upon her request on 8 December 2022. The protesters lack leadership and comprise independent groups. Rondas campesinas, armed peasant patrols that formerly defended communities from the leftist Shining Path guerilla group, also joined the protests. The Confederación General de Trabajadores del Perú (CGTP), the largest union in Peru, also called for the resignations of the executive and Congress. In Arequipa, they received support from labor unions such as the Arequipa Departmental Federation of Workers, the Civil Construction Union, and the National Front of Transporters and Drivers of Peru. They also had support of the president of the Unified Defense Front against the contamination of the Coata basin and Lake Titicaca. The regional SUTEP, which ignored Boluarte's election and declared a permanent mobilization, also supported. Hours after the kidnappings, the demonstrators released the police officers and numerous social organizations from the department of Apurimac declared themselves in a "popular insurgency" and will begin a regional strike starting Monday, 12 December. Clashes erupted in the city between protestors and police in the city; two protestors, aged 15 and 18, were killed by police shooting from a helicopter, while four more were injured, one of whom critically. President Boluarte responded to dissent by removing 26 regional prefects nominated by Castillo from their positions. On 13 December, the United States Ambassador to Peru, Lisa D. Kenna, travels to the Government Palace to meet with President Boluarte. Ayacucho massacre The Boluarte government announced a national state of emergency on 14 December, removing some constitutional protections from citizens, including the rights preventing troops from staying within private homes and buildings, the freedom of movement, the freedom of assembly, and "personal freedom and security" for 30 days. Human rights groups reported that members of the Peruvian Army were seen shooting at civilians protesting in Ayacucho. Casualties were sent for treatment at the Huamanga Network and in the Ayacucho Regional Hospital, The response by authorities caused the collapse of hospital systems in the city, with protesters suffering from gunshot wounds being treated in makeshift triage units. The Ayacucho Regional Health Directorate reported that 8 were killed and 52 were injured. Former president Castillo is sentenced to 18 months of pretrial detention. Defense Minister named Prime Minister President Boluarte shuffles her first cabinet, placing her former Minister of Defense Alberto Otárola as the new prime minister, while also replacing the Minister of Interior and Minister of Defense. Boluarte's new Minister of Education, Óscar Becerra, was reported to have a history of being an Fujimorist. Protesters continued activities in the regions of Amazonía, Apurímac, Arequipa, Ayacucho, Cusco, La Libertad, Lambayeque, Piura and Puno. In Amazonía, indigenous leaders release a statement stating "We alert the Army, we alert the National Police of Peru not to upset us because we are in our territory, we will see each other there, there we will surely declare war, because they are already provoking us and creating us discomfort". while Minister of Justice and Human Rights of Peru, José Tello, announced that reparations would be organized by a commission and distributed to individuals who were killed during the protests. Great March for Peace . Heading into the new year, the Peruvian National Police (PNP) called for citizens to participate in a "Great March for Peace" on 3 January 2023 in the town squares of cities throughout Peru. Internal PNP documents revealed that the march was organized for the political purpose to increase support for the Boluarte government, raising concerns about the police breaching the constitutional separation of authorities and political acts in Articles 34 and 169 of the constitution. In the documents, PNP officials said that officers not participating in the march would face sanctions. destroyed a motor taxi, and attacked an adolescent and their mother on 7 January. Protesters from multiple districts of Puno joined demonstrations in Juliaca on 9 January. Protesters approached Inca Manco Cápac International Airport around noon and demonstrated nearby, though when some began to enter the airport at 5:20 pm, authorities responded to the demonstration with deadly force. In total, 17 civilians were killed and over 100 others were injured, Journalists covering the massacre were sought to be identified by police intelligence units. The head of the Puno Traffic Safety Police was found with stolen televisions and other goods from a looted store. Caravans of protesters traveled to Lima and local individuals and shops provided supplies for their journey. On 13 January, the ministers of interior, labor and women resigned from their positions in the Boluarte government. During the response by authorities, there were reports that police played "The dance of the Chinese" on speakers, a campaign song used to support Alberto Fujimori during the 2000 Peruvian general election. On the night of the 19th, a local historical building next to San Martín Plaza caught fire, collapsing before dawn on the following day. Protesters congregated in Lima would continue to demonstrate in the subsequent weeks, with the first death in the capital city occurring on 28 January 2023 when police shot a man in the head with a tear gas canister. The government denied that police killed the protester. During a second "Takeover of Lima" event beginning on 2 March, protest leaders announced that 13 provinces would participate in mobilizations throughout the nation and that protesters would continue to congregate in Lima. During the protests, police fired tear gas directly at the bodies of Aymara women marching with babies on their backs. Minister of Education Óscar Becerra compared the women to animals, stating "Not even animals expose their children", instead suggesting that the women "rent their children so that they can be taken to this" in an effort of media manipulation. The Ministry of Women also avoided condemning the Armed Forces regarding the event. Days later, the state of emergency in Lima was ended on 9 March 2023 as protests waned. A third "Takeover of Lima" protest occurred nationwide on 19 July 2023; 24,000 police were deployed throughout Peru and several thousand protesters demonstrated in Lima. == Government response ==

troops clearing roadblocks in Laberinto, Madre de Dios Criminalization of protest Legality The Supreme Court of Peru would respond by criminalizing all demonstrations, prohibiting peaceful protests in a May 2023 judicial ruling that stated they were not protected by the constitution. Analysts described Boluarte's proposal as unconstitutional, saying that penalties for protesting were more severe than those charged with rape, that it removes the possibility of citizens protecting themselves from authorities during a state of emergency and that it increases the already high levels of impunity enjoyed by the armed forces and police in Peru. The government would also create a web portal for individuals to report "acts of terrorism" in an effort to incriminate protesters, a tool that Amnesty International described as "harassment and criminalization in the current context of socio-political crisis in which social protests are strongly repressed and critical positions towards the government are loaded with accusations of 'terruqueo'". focusing mainly on the so-called "dum dum bullets", ilegal artifacts capable of causing greater damage than a normal bullet and that have been found among groups of "ponchos rojos" crossing the border, as also indicated by the Bolivian deputy Erwin Bazán. The Peruvian police do not use bullets of this type and the Directorate Against Terrorism (Dircote) has said that investigations are still ongoing. Between 20 and 27 December 2022, the Peruvian National Police purchased 31,615 tear gas canisters and grenades from Condor Chemical Industry and the Army Weapons and Ammunition Factory (FAME) for US$661,530. In May 2023, Spain would reject further sales of weapons to Peru due to the unrest. though she later agreed with the December 2023 election date proposed by Castillo after she previously described such a move as illegal. Congress has rejected all attempts at advancing general elections in Peru and constitutional reforms have been ignored. == State violence towards protesters ==

Deaths and injuries The Armed Forces of Peru has a history of impunity, being responsible for at least 167 deaths between 2003 and 2020 while those responsible did not face consequences in nearly all events. Most of those killed died by being shot by the police and the military, with some individuals killed being bystanders. Among the dead, two minors were killed during the protests in Apurímac as the result of Peruvian troops firing at protesters from a helicopter. Two massacres also occurred; the Ayacucho massacre on 15 December 2022 that resulted with ten civilians killed and the Juliaca massacre on 9 January 2023, with the PNP killing eighteen civilians during the event, resulting with the most deaths in a single day during the protests. A New York Times investigation stated regarding the two events concluded that authorities intentionally used lethal force when they fired shotguns and assault rifles at unarmed protesters who were fleeing from them. Human rights violations Strong protests occurred in indigenous and Quechua majority regions, the center of Castillo's support, raising comparisons between Boluarte's actions and that of previous anti-Native governments of Peru. The United Nations Human Rights Council said that it was "deeply concerned about the possibility of an escalation of violence". Edgar Stuardo Ralón, Vice President of the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights (IACHR), stated during a delegation visit to Peru that individuals living in Lima participated in "widespread stigmatization" that is linked to "the historical and structural inequalities that exist in the country, those linked to the historical discrimination faced by indigenous peoples, the peasant population and the provinces", with such stigmatization resulting with increased political polarization and violence. According to La República, President of the Supreme Court of Peru, Javier Arévalo Vela, disagreed that human rights violations occurred in Peru when holding talks with Ralón, stating "in Peru there is no policy of human rights violations, but rather here it exists, at the moment, it is a situation of violence that has two aspects: the just claims of the population and the acts of vandalism that you have seen. ... we have to separate the straw from the wheat. This is the reality of the Judiciary". Extrajudicial executions and massacres The IACHR would describe the events in Ayacucho and Juliaca as massacres. Amnesty International, in an investigation regarding human rights violations perpetrated during the protests, focused on 25 individuals killed during protests in their report, noting that 20 of the 25 individuals had been extrajudicially executed. HRW would later criticize President Boluarte's violent response to protests, lack of providing accountability to authorities and her effort to blame protest violence on Bolivia without providing evidence. On 15 December, the CNDDHH denounced the use of "weapons of war" against protestors, with the NGO sharing a video of authorities using automatic firearms against demonstrators. Amnesty International's Americas head Erika Guevara-Rosas called for governmental restraint, saying: "State repression against protesters is only deepening the crisis in Peru. The authorities must put an end to the excessive use of force against demonstrations and guarantee the right to peaceful protest, using the legal and proportional means necessary to restore citizen security." Intrusions OjoPúblico documented that authorities have entered the homes of citizens to gain access to roofs and fire at protesters. The Inter-American Commission on Human Rights condemned the PNP's actions, saying they were "incompatible with the principles of international law". Torture According to testimony from a detained protesters interviewed by OjoPúblico, a group of protesters detained for three days by authorities were prohibited from having food and were beaten. == Media ==

After ascending to the presidency, President Boluarte quickly received support from Peru's national media companies. The national media in Peru largely overlooked the massacres in Ayacucho and Juliaca. Attacks on journalists The National Association of Journalists indicated that 21 journalists were victims of aggression between 7 and 11 December. Journalists interviewed by Wayka reported that authorities would frequently attack press workers and would attempt to prevent photographers from capturing images of individuals being detained. The government would attempt to deny that police killed the protester. Following Cornejo's report on the death of the protester, the National Institute of Radio and Television of Peru (IRTP), the parent company of TV Perú, refused to renew the reporter's contract on 31 January. According to the National Association of Journalists of Peru (ANP), the actions against Cornejo were "an indicted and arbitrary dismissal", stating "In circumstances in which, from all media, and essentially state media, it is imperative to guarantee a plurality of approaches and voices to promote public debate. Extinguishing critical positions can even constitute censorship". == Effects ==

Economic The main economic sectors of the Peruvian economy, mining and tourism, largely ceased during the protests. A month into protests, some stores in Lima were reporting a 60% decrease in sales compared to the previous year. According to the Boluarte government, Peru experienced $1.3 billion of infrastructure damage from protests by late January. == Reactions ==

Domestic Politicians • Ethnocacerists and their leader Antauro Humala at first called Boluarte "president" during pro-Castillo protests. Later Humala called her "de facto president" and called for protests. The Ethnocacerist movement compared Boluarte with Jeanine Áñez thus comparing Castillo's impeachment to the 2019 Bolivian political crisis. • Former president Ollanta Humala called President Boluarte to resign and called the congress "indolent and irresponsible". Public opinion According to IEP polling from early January 2023, 60% of respondents believed that the protests were justified, 58% believed that police used excessive force and 44% believed that the protests were organized by citizens groups or spontaneous action. The January poll also showed that compared to other regions, more respondents in Lima believed that the protests were terrorism and that the use of force by authorities was justified, while those polled in other regions did not. President Boluarte had a disapproval rate of 71% while 88% of respondents disapproved of Congress. According to those analyzing the polls, responses showed the disconnect between Lima and outlying regions. An IEP poll conducted between 21 and 25 January 2023 showed that among respondents, 73% demanded general elections in 2023, 74% believed President Boluarte – who now had a 76% disapproval rate – should resign, 89% disapproved of Congress. Regional governments • The National Assembly of Regional Governments proposed the convening of the National Agreement to seek a consensus between organizations, political parties and unions. • The Regional Government of Apurímac announced the indefinite suspension of classes at all educational levels and alerted all institutions to work under the virtual modality throughout the department, with the exception of the health sector. International Governments • , , , : Presidents Alberto Fernández, Luis Arce, Gustavo Petro, and Andrés Manuel López Obrador issued a joint comuniqué through the Mexican Presidential Office expressing their "deep concern" about the Peruvian Congress not respecting "the will of its citizens at the ballot box". They added that "it is no news" that Castillo, from the day of his election, "was the victim of anti-democratic harassment, in violation of Article 23 of the American Convention on Human Rights". The four governments said that "our governments call on all the actors involved in the previous process to prioritize the will of the citizens that was pronounced at the ballot box. This is the way to interpret the scope and meaning of the notion of democracy as set forth in the Inter-American Human Rights System". • : President Gustavo Petro additionally stated that "the crisis in Peru, imprisoning without judge or legal defense a President elected by popular vote put under serious questioning the role of the American Convention in the Latin-American legal order". • : The government of Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva would prohibit the sales of weapons to the Peruvian state until a "period of political and social instability" ended. • : Ambassador Louis Marcotte met with Peruvian foreign minister Ana Cecilia Gervasi Diaz, expressing Canada's support for the Boluarte government. • : President Gabriel Boric regretted the deaths reported as the result of the protests and called on the Peruvian government to "guard and respect human rights". Boric, who referred to the situation in Peru as "serious", supported the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights mission in the country. • : Russian Foreign Ministry spokesperson Maria Zakharova said that Russia "hopes in the normalization of the situation in Peru and that contradictions facing one faction with each other can be resolved in a legal frame, with democratic norms and within human rights, between Peruvians and without foreign interference." • : United States Secretary of State Antony Blinken made a phone call to President Boluarte and requested that her government "redouble their efforts to make needed reforms and safeguard democratic stability". In the 2022 Country Reports on Human Rights Practices of the United States Department of State, the United States condemned reports of torture, arbitrary killings, as well as the impunity granted to authorities and government officials, writing "the government did not effectively prevent the abuses or punish those who committed them". • : Pope Francis stated "We pray for peace. May the violence [in Peru] cease and may the path of dialogue be taken to overcome the political and social crisis affecting the people". • : The Government of Spain would prohibit the sales of weapons to the Peruvian state due to the instability faced during protests. Supranational bodies • : On 6 March 2023, United Nations experts stated "Serious allegations of excessive use of force by security forces and the Government’s inability to create a conducive environment for dialogue are a matter of great concern. ... In any democratic society, people have the right to protest and raise their concerns about political changes that affect their lives and livelihoods. Peru’s democracy is facing a credibility crisis". The experts also raised concern about arbitrary killings, forced disappearances, excessive use of force, the use of the terruqueo and racism in Peru. == See also ==