Background: 1556 to 1618 Disputes occasionally resulted in full-scale conflict like the 1583 to 1588
Cologne War, triggered when its
ruler converted to
Calvinism. More common were events such as the 1606 Battle of the Flags in Donauwörth, when riots broke out after the Lutheran majority blocked a Catholic religious procession.
Emperor Rudolf approved intervention by the Catholic
Maximilian of Bavaria. In return, he was allowed to annex the town, and, as agreed at Augsburg, the official religion changed from Lutheran to Catholic. When the Imperial Diet opened in February 1608, both Lutherans and Calvinists sought re-confirmation of the Augsburg settlement. In return, the Habsburg heir
Archduke Ferdinand required the immediate restoration of any property taken from the Catholic Church since 1555, as opposed to the previous practice whereby each case was assessed separately. By threatening all Protestants, his demand paralysed the diet and removed the perception of imperial neutrality. The loss of faith in central authority meant towns and rulers began strengthening their fortifications and armies, with foreign travellers often commenting on the militarisation of Germany in this period. When
Frederick IV, Elector Palatine formed the
Protestant Union in 1608, Maximilian responded by setting up the
Catholic League in July 1609. Both were largely vehicles for their leaders' dynastic ambitions, but when combined with the 1609 to 1614
War of the Jülich Succession, the result was to increase tensions throughout the empire. Some historians who see the war as primarily a European conflict argue that Jülich marks its beginning, with Spain and Austria backing the Catholic candidate, France and the
Dutch Republic the Protestant.
Purple:
Spanish dependencies
Green: Ruled by
Austria Orange: Ruled by Spain External powers became involved in what was an internal German dispute because of the imminent expiry of the 1609
Twelve Years' Truce, which suspended the
Eighty Years' War between Spain and the Dutch Republic. Before restarting hostilities,
Ambrosio Spinola, commander in the Spanish Netherlands, needed to secure the
Spanish Road, an overland route connecting Habsburg possessions in Italy to
Flanders. This allowed him to move troops and supplies by road, rather than sea where the Dutch navy was dominant; by 1618, the only part not controlled by Spain ran through the
Electoral Palatinate. Since
Emperor Matthias had no surviving children, in
July 1617 Philip III of Spain agreed to support
Ferdinand II's election as king of Bohemia and Hungary. In return, Ferdinand made concessions to Spain in northern Italy and Alsace, and agreed to support their offensive against the Dutch. Doing so required his election as emperor, which was not guaranteed; Maximilian of Bavaria, who opposed the increase of Spanish influence in an area he considered his own, tried to create a coalition to support his candidacy. Another option was
Frederick V, Elector Palatine, a Calvinist who in 1613 married
Elizabeth of Bohemia, daughter of
James I of England. When Ferdinand was elected king of Bohemia in 1617, he also gained control of its electoral vote, but his conservative Catholicism made him unpopular with the mostly Protestant Bohemian nobility, who were also concerned about the erosion of their rights. Since the seven electors previously consisted of three Protestants and four Catholics, replacing Ferdinand with Frederick would alter the religious balance, making possible the election of a Protestant emperor and the end of Habsburg predominance. These factors combined to bring about the
Bohemian Revolt in May 1618.
Phase I: 1618 to 1635 Bohemian Revolt (1618), which marked the beginning of the Bohemian Revolt, and therefore of the first phase of the Thirty Years' War. Ferdinand once claimed he would rather see his lands destroyed than tolerate
heresy within them. Less than 18 months after taking control of
Styria in 1595, he had eliminated Protestantism in what had been a stronghold of the
Reformation. Their war in the Netherlands meant the Spanish Habsburgs preferred to avoid antagonising Protestants elsewhere. However, while recognising the dangers of Ferdinand's fervent Catholicism, they ultimately supported his claim due to lack of alternatives. Elected king of Bohemia in May 1617, Ferdinand reconfirmed
Protestant religious freedoms, but his record in Styria led to the suspicion he was only awaiting a chance to overturn them. These concerns were heightened after a series of legal disputes over property were all decided in favour of the Catholic Church. In May 1618, Protestant nobles led by
Count Thurn met in
Prague Castle with Ferdinand's two Catholic representatives,
Vilem Slavata and
Jaroslav Borzita. In what became known as the
Third Defenestration of Prague, both men were thrown out of the castle windows along with their secretary
Filip Fabricius, although all three survived. Thurn established a Protestant-dominated government in Bohemia, while unrest expanded into
Silesia and the Habsburg heartlands of
Lower and
Upper Austria, where much of the nobility was also Protestant. Losing control of these threatened the entire Habsburg state, while in addition to its crucial electoral vote, Bohemia was one of the most prosperous areas of the Empire. Regaining control was vital for the Austrian Habsburgs, but chronic financial weakness left them dependent on Maximilian and Spain for the resources needed to achieve this. Spanish involvement in Bohemia drew in the Dutch and their ally,
France, although the strongly Catholic
Louis XIII faced his own domestic
Protestant rebellion and refused to support them elsewhere. Elsewhere,
Charles Emmanuel I, Duke of Savoy helped Frederick fund a mercenary army under
Ernst von Mansfeld, which was sent to support the Bohemian rebels. Attempts by Maximilian and John George of Saxony to broker a negotiated solution ended when Emperor Matthias died in March 1619, since many believed the loss of his authority and influence had fatally damaged the Habsburgs. By mid-June 1619, an army led by Thurn was outside
Vienna, and despite defeating Mansfeld at
Sablat, Ferdinand's position continued to worsen.
Gabriel Bethlen, the Calvinist
Prince of Transylvania, invaded Hungary and besieged
Vienna with Ottoman support, although war with
Poland in 1620, followed by the
1623 to 1639 conflict with Persia, prevented their direct participation. On 19 August, the Bohemian Estates rescinded Ferdinand's 1617 election as king and a week later formally offered the crown to Frederick. On 28 August,
Ferdinand was elected Holy Roman Emperor, making war inevitable if Frederick accepted the Bohemian crown. Most of Frederick's advisors urged him to reject it, as did the Duke of Savoy, and his father-in-law James I. However, he received backing from
Christian of Anhalt, along with
Maurice of Orange, for whom conflict in Germany was a means to divert Spanish resources from the Netherlands. The Dutch offered subsidies to Frederick and the Protestant Union, helped raise loans for Bohemia, and provided weapons and munitions. However, wider European support failed to materialise, largely due to lack of enthusiasm for removing a legally elected ruler, regardless of religion. Although Frederick accepted the crown and entered Prague in October 1619, his support eroded over the next few months. In July 1620, the Protestant Union proclaimed its neutrality, while John George of Saxony backed Ferdinand in return for the cession of
Lusatia and a guarantee of Lutheran rights in Bohemia. Maximilian of Bavaria funded a combined
Imperial-Catholic League army led by
Count Tilly and the
Count de Bucquoy, which
pacified Upper and Lower Austria and occupied western Bohemia before marching on Prague. Defeated at the
Battle of White Mountain in November 1620, the Bohemian army disintegrated, and Frederick fled the country.
Palatinate campaign By abandoning Frederick, the German princes hoped to restrict the dispute to Bohemia, an objective thwarted by Maximilian's dynastic ambitions. In the October 1619
Treaty of Munich, Ferdinand transferred the Palatinate's electoral vote to Bavaria, and allowed Maximilian to annex the
Upper Palatinate. Many Protestants had supported Ferdinand because in principle they opposed the deposition of a legally elected ruler, and now objected to Frederick's removal on the same grounds. For Catholics, it presented an opportunity to regain lands and properties lost since 1555, a combination which destabilised large parts of the Empire. whose seizure of the Palatinate expanded the war At the same time, Spain was drawn into the conflict due to the strategic importance of the Spanish Road for their war in the Netherlands, and its proximity to the Palatinate. When an army led by
Córdoba occupied the
Lower Palatinate in October 1619, James I sent English naval forces against Spanish colonial possessions and threatened war if Spanish troops were not withdrawn by spring 1621. These actions were primarily designed to placate his opponents in
Parliament, who considered his pro-Spanish policy a betrayal of the Protestant cause. Spanish chief minister
Count-Duke Olivares correctly interpreted them as an invitation to open negotiations, and in return for an Anglo-Spanish alliance offered to restore Frederick to his Rhineland possessions. Since Frederick's demand for full restitution of his lands and titles was incompatible with the Treaty of Munich, hopes of a negotiated peace quickly evaporated. Despite defeat in Bohemia, Frederick's allies included
Georg Friedrich of Baden and
Christian of Brunswick, while the Dutch provided him with military support after the Eighty Years' War restarted in April 1621 and his father-in-law James funded an army of mercenaries under Mansfeld. However, their failure to co-ordinate effectively led to a series of defeats by Spanish and Catholic League forces, at
Wimpfen in May 1622, which forced Georg Friedrich to seek peace and at
Höchst in June, which forced Christian to meet up with Mansfeld. By November 1622, Spanish and imperial troops controlled most of the Palatinate, apart from
Frankenthal, which was held by a small English garrison under Sir
Horace Vere. After Höchst, Mansfeld and Christian united at Hagenau before moving towards the Netherlands. They were
stopped by Córdoba at Fleurus, but the Protestant army escaped full destruction and made it to Bergen op Zoom. Frederick arrived in the Netherlands in 1622, where he lived in
The Hague until his death in November 1632. When the Imperial Diet met in February 1623, Ferdinand forced through provisions transferring Frederick's titles, lands, and electoral vote to Maximilian. He did so with support from the Catholic League, despite strong opposition from Protestant members, as well as the Spanish. The Palatinate was clearly lost, and in March Vere surrendered Frankenthal, while Tilly's victory over Christian of Brunswick at
Stadtlohn in August completed military operations. However, Spanish and Dutch involvement in the campaign was a significant step in internationalising the war, while Frederick's removal meant other Protestant princes began discussing armed resistance to preserve their own rights and territories.
Danish intervention (1625–1629) With Saxony dominating the
Upper Saxon Circle and
Brandenburg the
Lower, both
kreise remained neutral in the early stages. However, Frederick's deposition in 1623 united the Lutheran John George of Saxony and Calvinist
George William, Elector of Brandenburg, who became concerned Ferdinand intended to reclaim formerly Catholic bishoprics now held by Protestants. These fears seemed confirmed in early 1625 when Tilly returned to the Catholic church properties in
Halberstadt which had been Protestant since 1566. As Duke of Holstein, Christian IV was also a member of the Lower Saxon circle, while the Danish economy relied on the Baltic trade and tolls from traffic through the
Øresund. In 1621, Hamburg accepted Danish "supervision", while his son
Frederick became joint-administrator of
Lübeck,
Bremen, and
Verden; possession ensured Danish control of the
Elbe and
Weser rivers. Ferdinand had paid
Albrecht von Wallenstein for his support against Frederick with estates confiscated from the Bohemian rebels, and now contracted with him to conquer the north on a similar basis. In May 1625, the Lower Saxony
kreis elected Christian their military commander, although not without resistance; Saxony and Brandenburg viewed Denmark and Sweden as competitors, and wanted to avoid either becoming involved in the empire. Attempts to negotiate a peaceful solution failed as the conflict in Germany became part of the wider struggle between France and their Habsburg rivals in Spain and Austria. In the June 1624
Treaty of Compiègne, France had agreed to subsidise the Dutch war against Spain for a minimum of three years, while in the December 1625
Treaty of The Hague, the Dutch and English agreed to finance Danish intervention in the Empire. Hoping to create a wider coalition against Ferdinand, the Dutch invited France, Sweden, Savoy, Transylvania, and the
Republic of Venice to join, but it was overtaken by events. In early 1626,
Cardinal Richelieu, main architect of the alliance, faced a new Huguenot rebellion at home and in the March
Treaty of Monzón, France withdrew from northern Italy and the critical
Valtellina Pass , re-opening the Spanish Road. Dutch and English subsidies enabled Christian to devise an ambitious three part campaign plan. While he led the main force down the Weser, Mansfeld would attack Wallenstein in
Magdeburg, supported by forces led by Christian of Brunswick and
Maurice of Hesse-Kassel. However, Mansfeld was defeated at
Dessau Bridge in April, and when Maurice refused to support him, Christian of Brunswick fell back to
Wolfenbüttel, where he died of disease shortly after. The Danes were comprehensively beaten at
Lutter in August, and Mansfeld's army retreated south to the
Ottoman Empire, where his army dissolved after his death in November. Many of Christian's German allies, such as
Hesse-Kassel, had little interest in replacing imperial domination with Danish, while few of the Dutch or English subsidies were ever paid.
Charles I of England allowed Christian to recruit up to 9,000 Scottish mercenaries, but they took time to arrive, and although able to slow Wallenstein's advance, were insufficient to stop him. By the end of 1627, Wallenstein had occupied
Mecklenburg,
Pomerania, and
Jutland, and began making plans to construct a fleet capable of challenging Danish control of the Baltic. He was supported by Spain, for whom it provided an opportunity to open another front against the Dutch. On 13 May 1628, his deputy
von Arnim besieged
Stralsund, the only port with facilities large enough to build this fleet.
Gustavus Adolphus responded by sending several thousand Scots to Stralsund under
Alexander Leslie, who was also appointed governor. Von Arnim abandoned the siege on 4 August, but three weeks later Christian suffered another defeat at
Wolgast. He began negotiations with Wallenstein, who despite his recent victories was concerned by the prospect of Swedish intervention, and thus anxious to make peace. achieved great military success for the Empire but his power threatened both Ferdinand and the German princes. With Ferdinand's resources stretched by the outbreak of the
War of the Mantuan Succession, Wallenstein persuaded him to agree relatively lenient terms in the June 1629
Treaty of Lübeck. These allowed Christian to retain
Schleswig and Holstein in return for relinquishing Bremen and Verden, and abandoning support for the German Protestants. While Denmark kept Schleswig and Holstein until
1864, this effectively ended its period as a major power in the Baltic region. Once again, the methods used to obtain victory explain why the war failed to end. Ferdinand's chronic financial weakness meant Wallenstein raised money by demanding ransoms from towns, while his men plundered the local territory, regardless of whether it belonged to allies or opponents. When Ferdinand deposed the hereditary
Duke of Mecklenburg in early 1628 and appointed Wallenstein in his place, the act united all German princes in opposition, regardless of religion. However, Maximilian's desire to retain the Palatinate meant the Catholic League argued only for a return to the position prevailing before 1627, while Protestants wanted that of 1618. Made overconfident by success, in March 1629, Ferdinand passed an
Edict of Restitution, which required all lands taken from the Catholic church after 1555 to be returned. While technically legal, politically it was extremely unwise, since doing so would alter nearly every single state boundary in north and central Germany, deny the existence of Calvinism and restore Catholicism in areas where it had not been a significant presence for nearly a century. Well aware none of the princes involved would agree, Ferdinand used the device of an imperial
edict, once again asserting his right to alter laws without consultation. This new assault on "German liberties" ensured continuing opposition and undermined his previous success. At the same time, his Spanish allies were reluctant to antagonise German Protestants as the
Eighty Years' War had now shifted in favour of the Dutch Republic. Madrid's financial position steadily deteriorated in the 1620s, particularly after the
Dutch captured the
Spanish treasure fleet at
Matanzas in 1628. Fighting in Italy diverted Spanish resources from the Netherlands, allowing
Frederick Henry to
besiege 's-Hertogenbosch in 1629.
Imperial intervention could not prevent its fall, further the losses of
Oldenzaal and
Groenlo in 1626 and 1627 respectively, ended the Spanish hope to cut off the Dutch from the East.
Sweden invades Germany (1630–1635) at
Breitenfeld in 1631 From 1626 to 1629, Gustavus was engaged in a
war with Poland–Lithuania, ruled by his Catholic cousin
Sigismund, who also claimed the Swedish throne and was backed by Ferdinand II. Once this conflict ended, and with only a few minor states like
Hesse-Kassel still openly opposing Ferdinand, Gustavus became an obvious ally for Richelieu. In September 1629, the latter helped negotiate the
Truce of Altmark between Sweden and Poland, freeing Gustavus to enter the war. Partly a genuine desire to support his Protestant co-religionists, like Christian he also wanted to maximise his share of the Baltic trade that provided much of Sweden's income. After diplomatic negotiations with Ferdinand II failed, Gustavus landed in
Pomerania in June 1630 with nearly 18,000 troops. Using Stralsund as a bridgehead, he marched south along the
Oder towards
Stettin and coerced
Bogislaw XIV, Duke of Pomerania, into agreeing an
alliance which secured his interests in Pomerania against his rival Sigismund. As a result, the Poles turned their attention to Russia, who initiated the 1632 to 1634
Smolensk War. However, Swedish expectations of widespread German support proved unrealistic. By the end of 1630, their only new ally was the Administrator of Magdeburg,
Christian William whose capital was under siege by Tilly. Despite the devastation inflicted by Wallenstein's soldiers, Saxony and Brandenburg were ambivalent about Swedish intervention. Both states had their own ambitions in Pomerania, while experience showed inviting external powers into the Empire was easier than getting them to leave. in 1631 Gustavus put pressure on Brandenburg by sacking Küstrin and
Frankfurt an der Oder and then bombarding George William in
Berlin, while the
Sack of Magdeburg in May 1631 provided a powerful warning of the consequences of imperial victory. Once again, Richelieu used French financial power to bridge differences between the Swedes and their potential allies. In the 1631
Treaty of Bärwalde, he agreed to fund the Swedes and a number of smaller states including Hesse-Kassel, Saxony, and Brandenburg. These payments amounted to 400,000
Reichstaler per year, or one million
livres, enabling Sweden to support a total of 36,000 troops. With this army, Gustavus invaded southern Germany, winning victories at
Breitenfeld in September 1631, then
Rain in April 1632, where Tilly was killed. However, Wallenstein realised the Swedes were overextended, and established himself at
Fürth, across their supply lines to the Baltic. At the
Battle of the Alte Veste in late August, a failed Swedish assault on the Imperial camp outside the town was bloodily repulsed, arguably the greatest blunder committed by Gustavus during his German campaign. Two months later, the Swedes and Imperialists met at
Lützen, where both sides suffered heavy casualties. Gustavus himself was killed and some Swedish units incurred losses of over 60%. Fighting continued until dusk when Wallenstein retreated, abandoning his artillery and wounded. Despite the loss of Gustavus, most commentators consider the battle a Swedish victory, although the result continues to be disputed. At the same time
Frederick Henry launched a campaign in the Meuse Region were he captured
Maastricht and several other cities, despite an Imperial intervention. After his death, Gustavus' policies were continued by his Chancellor
Axel Oxenstierna, and
Bernard of Saxe-Weimar and
Gustav Horn. With French backing, Sweden and a number of smaller German states formed the
Heilbronn League in April 1633, although
Brunswick-Lüneburg, Saxony, and Brandenburg remained outside. In July, the Swedes and their allies defeated a Bavarian army at
Oldendorf. Wallenstein's critics claimed this was due to his failure to support them, while rumours spread that he was preparing to switch sides. As a result, Ferdinand II ordered his arrest in February 1634, and
he was assassinated by his own officers in Cheb on 25th. The loss of Wallenstein and his organisation left Ferdinand II reliant on Spain for military support. Since their main concern was to re-open the Spanish Road for their campaign against the Dutch, the focus of the war now shifted from the north to the Rhineland and Bavaria.
Cardinal-Infante Ferdinand of Austria, new Governor of the Spanish Netherlands, raised an army of 18,000 in Italy, which met up with 15,000 Imperial troops at Donauwörth on 2 September 1634. Four days later, their combined army defeated Horn and Bernard at
Nördlingen, a result that cost Sweden control of southern Germany.
Phase II: French intervention, 1635 to 1648 By triggering direct French intervention, Nördlingen expanded the conflict rather than ending it. Richelieu provided the Swedes with
new subsidies, hired mercenaries led by
Bernard of Saxe-Weimar for an offensive in the Rhineland, and in May 1635 initiated the
Franco-Spanish War (1635–1659). A few days later, the German states and Ferdinand agreed to the
Peace of Prague. In return for withdrawing the Edict of Restitution, the Heilbronn and Catholic Leagues agreed to dissolve their forces, which were replaced by a single Imperial army, although Saxony and Bavaria retained control of their own forces. This is generally seen as the point when the war ceased to be a primarily inter-German religious conflict. , French chief minister from 1624 until 1642, and creator of the anti-Habsburg alliance In March 1635, French soldiers entered the
Valtellina, cutting the link between Milan and the Empire. This was followed in May by an invasion of the Spanish Netherlands, which collapsed with the loss of 17,000 men. In
March 1636, France joined the Thirty Years' War as an ally of Sweden, which was increasingly reliant on French financing for its continued participation. The Spanish responded by invading northern France, causing panic in Paris before lack of supplies forced them to retreat. Elsewhere, Saxony began the year by occupying Pomerania, before defeats at
Dömitz and
Wittstock in October re-established Swedish predominance in northeast Germany. Ferdinand II died in February 1637, and was succeeded by his son
Ferdinand III, who faced a precarious military position. Although
Matthias Gallas had forced
Johan Banér, the new Swedish commander, back to the Baltic, in March 1638 Bernard of Saxe Weimar destroyed an Imperial army at
Rheinfelden. His capture of
Breisach in December severed the Spanish Road, while
Charles I Louis raised an army to regain his father's possessions in the Palatinate. Although the latter was routed by
von Hatzfeldt at
Vlotho in October, lack of supplies obliged Gallas to withdraw from the Baltic. In April 1639, Banér defeated the Saxons at
Chemnitz, then invaded Bohemia in May. To retrieve the situation, Ferdinand diverted
Piccolomini's army from
Thionville, ending direct military cooperation between Austria and Spain. Pressure grew on Olivares to make peace, especially after French and Swedish gains in Germany cut the Spanish Road, forcing
Madrid to resupply their armies in Flanders by sea. Attempts to re-assert maritime control ended when the
Dutch fleet under
Maarten Tromp won a significant victory over the Spanish at the
Downs in October 1639. The French occupied Spanish-controlled
Artois in 1640, while
Dutch attacks on
Portuguese colonies, combined with opposition to taxes, led to revolts in both
Portugal and
Catalonia. Olivares now argued Spain should accept Dutch independence, and focus on preventing further French gains in the Spanish Netherlands. This appeared achievable since most of the Dutch
regenten believed the war was won, the only question being the price of peace. They therefore reduced the army budget for 1640, despite objections from Frederick Henry. After Bernard died in July 1639, his troops joined Banér's Swedish army in an ineffectual campaign along the Weser, the highlight being a surprise attack in January 1641 on the Imperial Diet in Regensburg. Forced to retreat, Banér reached
Halberstadt in May where he died, and despite beating off an Imperial force at
Wolfenbüttel in June, his largely German troops mutinied due to lack of pay. The situation was saved by the arrival of
Lennart Torstensson in November with 7,000 Swedish recruits and enough cash to satisfy the mutineers. The French won a
victory at Kempen with Hessian support in January 1642. This was followed by a
Swedish victory at Breitenfeld in October 1642, where Torstensson inflicted almost 10,000 casualties on an Imperial army led by
Archduke Leopold Wilhelm of Austria. The Swedes captured
Leipzig in December, although they failed to take
Freiberg, and by 1643 the Saxon army had been reduced to a few isolated garrisons. Despite these setbacks, Ferdinand fought on, hoping to improve his position enough to exclude the Imperial Estates from his peace negotiations with France and Sweden, and allow him to represent the Empire as a whole. This seemed more likely when Richelieu died in December 1642, followed by
Louis XIII in May 1643, leaving his five-year-old son
Louis XIV as king. However, Richelieu's policies were continued by his successor
Cardinal Mazarin, while gains in Alsace allowed France to focus on the war against Spain. In 1643, the Army of Flanders invaded northern France, but were decisively beaten by
Condé at
Rocroi on 19 May. This ended any prospect of re-opening the Spanish Road, and Madrid finally accepted the reality of Dutch independence. However, Condé was unable to fully exploit his victory due to factors affecting all combatants. The devastation inflicted by 25 years of warfare meant armies spent more time foraging than fighting, forcing them to become smaller and more mobile, with a much greater emphasis on cavalry. Difficulties in gathering provisions meant campaigns started later, and restricted them to areas that could be easily supplied, usually close to rivers. In addition, the French army in Germany was shattered at
Tuttlingen in November by Bavarian general
Franz von Mercy. Soon after Rocroi, Ferdinand invited Sweden and France to attend peace talks in the
Westphalian towns of
Münster and
Osnabrück, but negotiations were delayed when Christian of Denmark blockaded Hamburg and increased toll payments in the Baltic. This severely impacted the Dutch and Swedish economies, and in December 1643 the
Torstensson War began when the Swedes invaded Jutland with Dutch naval support. The Swedish attack on Jutland, commanded by
Torstensson, was accompanied by another invasion through
Scania, led by
Gustav Horn. Ferdinand assembled an army under Gallas to attack the Swedes from the rear and to support Denmark, which proved a disastrous decision. Leaving
Wrangel to finish the war in Denmark, in May 1644 Torstensson marched back into Germany. Gallas was unable to stop him, and the Danes sued for peace after their defeat at
Fehmarn in October 1644. In August 1644, the French and Bavarian armies met in the three day
Battle of Freiburg, in which both sides suffered heavy casualties. Convinced the war could no longer be won, Maximilian now put pressure on Ferdinand to end the conflict. Shortly after peace talks restarted in November, Gallas' army disintegrated and the remnants retreated into Bohemia, where they were scattered by Torstensson at
Jankau in March 1645. In May, Bavarians under von Mercy destroyed a French detachment at
Herbsthausen, before he in turn was defeated and killed at
Second Nördlingen in August. In September, John George of Saxony signed a six-month truce with Sweden, then agreed to remain neutral in the March 1646 Treaty of Eulenberg. in 1648 Under
Turenne, French commander in the Rhineland, and Wrangel, who had replaced Torstensson, the French and Swedes separately
invaded Bavaria in the summer of 1646. Maximilian was soon desperate to end the war he was largely responsible for starting, at which point the Spanish publicised a secret offer by Mazarin to exchange French-occupied Catalonia for the Spanish Netherlands. Angered by this duplicity, the Dutch agreed a truce with Spain in January 1647 and began to negotiate their own peace terms. Having failed to acquire the Netherlands through diplomacy, Mazarin decided to do so by force. To free up resources for the attempt, on 14 March 1647 he signed the
Truce of Ulm with Bavaria,
Cologne and Sweden. The planned offensive fell apart when Turenne's mostly German troops mutinied, while Bavarian general
Johann von Werth refused to comply with the truce. Although the mutinies were quickly suppressed, Maximilian felt obliged to follow Werth's example, and in September ordered Bronckhorst-Gronsfeld to combine the remnants of the Bavarian army with Imperial troops under
Peter von Holzappel. Outnumbered by a Franco-Swedish army led by Wrangel and Turenne, they were defeated at
Zusmarshausen in May 1648. Holzappel was killed, and although most of his army escaped thanks to
Raimondo Montecuccoli, Bavaria was left defenceless once again. The Swedes sent a second force under
von Königsmarck to
attack Prague, seizing the castle and
Malá Strana district in July. The main objective was to gain as much loot as possible before the war ended; they failed to take the
Old Town but captured treasures including the
Codex Gigas, which can now be seen in Stockholm. When a Spanish offensive in Flanders ended with defeat at
Lens in August 1648, Ferdinand finally agreed terms and on 24 October, he signed peace treaties with France and Sweden, ending the war.
Italy and Switzerland Control of Northern Italy provided access to the vulnerable southern borders of France and Austria. It also contained large sections of the
Spanish Road, which allowed Spain to safely move recruits from Italy to support their war in the Netherlands. The French sought to disrupt this vital supply route by attacking the Spanish-held Duchy of Milan, or blocking the Alpine passes. In 1618, war broke out in the
Valtellina between the Catholic Grisons Rebels and the Protestant
Three Leagues. Both Spain and France sent troops to support different factions, with France sending the
Duke of Rohan and Spain the
Duke of Feria. In 1625,
Savoy invaded
Genoa with French support, while
François d'Estrées invaded the Valtellina. Spain then sent the Duke of Feria and the
Marquess of Santa Cruz to
relieve Genoa, which happened in April 1625. In 1626, France and Spain signed the
Treaty of Monzón, with France agreeing to withdraw from the Valtellina and
Piedmont.
Montferrat and its fortress of
Casale Monferrato were subsidiary territories of the
Duchy of Mantua and their possession allowed the holder to threaten Milan. When the
Duke of Mantua died in December 1627, France and Spain backed rival claimants, resulting in the 1628 to 1631 War of the Mantuan Succession. The French-born
Duke of Nevers was backed by France and the Republic of Venice, his rival the
Duke of Guastalla by Spain, Ferdinand II, Savoy and
Tuscany. While a relatively minor conflict, the struggle had a disproportionate impact on the Thirty Years War, since
Pope Urban VIII viewed Habsburg expansion in Italy as a threat to the
Papal States. His opposition to Ferdinand II divided the Catholic powers, and made it acceptable for France to employ Protestant allies against Austria. In March 1629, the French stormed Savoyard positions in the Pas de Suse, lifted the Spanish siege of Casale, and captured
Pinerolo. The
Treaty of Suza then ceded the two fortresses to France and allowed their troops unrestricted passage through Savoyard territory, giving them control over
Piedmont and the Alpine passes into southern France. However, as soon as the main French army withdrew in late 1629, the Spanish and Savoyards besieged Casale once again. At the same time, mercenaries funded by Ferdinand II were used in a Spanish offensive which routed the main Venetian field army, and forced Nevers to abandon Mantua. By October 1630, the French position seemed so precarious their representatives agreed the Treaty of Ratisbon. It was never ratified, as Richelieu claimed he had not approved the terms. Several factors restored the French position in northern Italy, notably a devastating outbreak of
plague; between 1629 and 1631, over 60,000 died in
Milan and 46,000 in
Venice, with proportionate losses elsewhere. Richelieu took advantage of the diversion of imperial resources to fund a
Swedish invasion of Germany, whose success forced the Spanish-Savoyard alliance to withdraw from Casale and sign the Treaty of Cherasco in April 1631. Nevers was confirmed as Duke of Mantua and although Richelieu's representative, Cardinal Mazarin, agreed to evacuate Pinerolo, it was later secretly returned under an agreement with
Victor Amadeus I, Duke of Savoy. With the exception of the 1639 to 1642
Piedmontese Civil War, this secured the French position in northern Italy for the next twenty years. by French troops, 1630 After the outbreak of the Franco-Spanish War in 1635, Richelieu supported a renewed offensive by Victor Amadeus against Milan to tie down Spanish resources. These included an unsuccessful attack on
Valenza in 1635, plus minor victories at
Tornavento and
Mombaldone. However, the anti-Habsburg alliance in northern Italy fell apart when first Charles of Mantua died in September 1637, then Victor Amadeus in October, whose death led to a struggle for control of the Savoyard state between his widow
Christine of France and brothers,
Thomas and
Maurice. In 1639, their quarrel erupted into open warfare, with France backing Christine and Spain the two brothers, and resulted in the
Siege of Turin. One of the most famous military events of the 17th century, at one stage it featured no less than three different armies besieging each other. However, revolts in Portugal and Catalonia forced the Spanish to cease operations in Italy, and the war was settled on terms favourable to Christine and France. In 1647, a French-backed rebellion succeeded in temporarily overthrowing Spanish rule in
Naples. The Spanish quickly crushed the
Neapolitan Revolt of 1647 and restored their rule over all of
southern Italy, defeating multiple French expeditionary forces sent to back the rebels. However, it exposed the weakness of Spanish rule in Italy and the alienation of the local elites from Madrid. In 1650, the governor of Milan wrote that as well as widespread dissatisfaction in the south, the only one of the Italian states that could be relied on was the
Duchy of Parma.
Iberian Peninsula ; Spain's inability to protect Portuguese interests in the 1602 to 1663
Dutch–Portuguese War was a key factor in the 1640
Portuguese Restoration War Throughout the 1630s, tax increases levied to pay for the war led to protests throughout Spanish territories, which in 1640 resulted in revolts: first in Portugal with the
Restoration War to re-gain their independence against the
Iberian Union, then in the
Principality of Catalonia. Both were backed by France as part of Richelieu's 'war by diversion', in January 1641 the rebels proclaimed a
Catalan Republic. The Madrid government quickly assembled an army of 26,000 men to crush the
Catalan revolt, which defeated the rebels at
Martorell on 23 January 1641. The French now persuaded the
Catalan Courts to recognise Louis XIII as
Count of Barcelona, and ruler of Catalonia. On 26 January, a combined French-Catalan force routed a larger Spanish army at
Montjuïc and secured
Barcelona. However, the rebels soon found the new French administration differed little from the old, turning the war into a three-sided contest between the Franco-Catalan elite, the rural peasantry, and the Spanish. There was little serious fighting after France
took control of Perpignan and
Roussillon, establishing the current-day Franco-Spanish border in the Pyrenees. The revolt ended in 1651 when Madrid
recaptured Barcelona.
Peace of Westphalia (1648) after the Peace of Westphalia, 1648 In its final form, the Peace of Westphalia consisted of three separate agreements. These were the
Peace of Münster between Spain and the Dutch Republic, the Treaty of Osnabrück between the Empire and Sweden, and the Treaty of Münster between the Empire and France. Split between Münster and Osnabrück, talks began in 1642, with a total of 109 delegations attending at one time or other. After the Swedes rejected Christian of Denmark as mediator, the negotiators finally agreed on
Papal Legate Fabio Chigi, and Venetian envoy
Alvise Contarini. The first to be signed on 30 January 1648, the Peace of Münster forms part of the Westphalia settlement since the Dutch Republic was still considered imperial territory. It confirmed Dutch independence from Spain, although the Republic was not officially acknowledged as being outside the Empire until 1728. The Dutch also gained a monopoly over trade conducted through the Scheldt estuary, ensuring the commercial ascendancy of
Amsterdam.
Antwerp, capital of the Spanish Netherlands and previously the most important port in northern Europe, would not recover economically until the late 19th century. The terms of the separate treaties with France and Sweden had first to be agreed by Ferdinand and the Imperial Estates. It has been argued they were a "major turning point in German and European...legal history", because they went beyond normal peace settlements and effected major constitutional and religious changes to the Empire itself. Negotiations were complex and slow, with states like Saxony and Bavaria having very different views on desired outcomes. Ferdinand delayed signing, hoping for an improvement in his military position, but with Swedish troops on the verge of taking Prague, he finally did so on 24 October. Key elements of the Peace were provisions confirming the autonomy of states within the Empire, Ferdinand's acceptance of the supremacy of the Imperial Diet, and those seeking to prevent future religious conflict. Article 5 reconfirmed the Augsburg settlement, established 1624 as the basis, or "Normaljahr", for determining the dominant religion of a state and guaranteed freedom of worship for religious minorities. Article 7 recognised Calvinism as a Reformed faith and removed the
ius reformandi, the requirement that if a ruler changed his religion, his subjects had to follow suit. These terms did not apply to the hereditary lands of the Habsburg monarchy, such as Lower and Upper Austria. between
Spain and the
Dutch Republic, 30 January 1648 In terms of territorial concessions, Brandenburg-Prussia received
Farther Pomerania, and the bishoprics of Magdeburg, Halberstadt,
Kammin, and
Minden. Frederick's son
Charles Louis regained the Lower Palatinate and became the eighth imperial elector, although Bavaria kept the Upper Palatinate and its electoral vote. In Lorraine, the
Three Bishoprics of
Metz,
Toul and
Verdun, occupied by France since 1552, were formally ceded, as were the cities of the
Décapole in Alsace, with the exception of
Strasbourg and
Mulhouse. Sweden received an indemnity of five million
thalers, the imperial territories of
Swedish Pomerania, and the Prince-bishoprics of Bremen and Verden, which also gave them a seat in the Imperial Diet. The terms were denounced by
Pope Innocent X, for whom the bishoprics ceded to France and Brandenburg were property of the Catholic church, and thus his to assign. It also disappointed many exiles by accepting Catholicism as the dominant religion in Bohemia, Upper and Lower Austria, all Protestant strongholds prior to 1618. Fighting did not end immediately, since demobilising over 200,000 soldiers took time, and the last Swedish garrison did not leave Germany until 1654. In addition, Mazarin insisted on excluding the
Burgundian Circle from the Treaty of Münster, allowing France to continue its campaign against Spain in the Low Countries, a war that continued until the 1659
Treaty of the Pyrenees. The
political disintegration of Poland-Lithuania led to the 1655 to 1660
Second Northern War with Sweden, which also involved Denmark, Russia and Brandenburg, while two Swedish attempts to impose its control on the port of
Bremen failed in
1654 and 1666. It has been argued the Peace established the principle known as
Westphalian sovereignty, the idea of non-interference in domestic affairs by outside powers, although this has since been challenged. The "Congress" model was used for negotiations at
Aix-la-Chapelle in 1668,
Nijmegen in 1678, and
Ryswick in 1697, although unlike the 19th-century system, these were intended to end wars, rather than prevent them. ==Human and financial cost of the war==