In
antiquity and the
Middle Ages, most
Jews,
Christians, and
Muslims in the
Orient believed in the protective and healing power of amulets or blessed objects. Many pagan religions also believe in stone worship. Talismans used by these peoples can be broken down into three main categories: talismans carried or worn on the body, talismans hung upon or above the bed of an infirm person, and medicinal talismans. This third category can be further divided into external and internal talismans. For example, an external amulet can be placed in a bath. Jews, Christians, and Muslims have also at times used their
holy books in a talisman-like manner in grave situations. For example, a bedridden and seriously ill person would have a holy book placed under part of the bed or cushion.
Judaism Amulets are plentiful in the
Jewish tradition, with examples of
Solomon-era amulets existing in many
museums. Due to the proscription of
idols and other graven images in
Judaism, Jewish amulets emphasize text and names. The shape, material, and color of a Jewish amulet makes no difference. Examples of textual amulets include the
Silver Scroll (), the
Chai necklace (though this is also worn simply to indicate Jewish identity), and inscriptions of one of the names of the god of Judaism - such as ה (He), יה (YaH), or שדי (
Shaddai) - on a piece of parchment or metal, usually silver. Counter-examples, however, include the
Hamsa (an outline of a human hand) and the
Seal of Solomon. , in the
Jewish Museum of Switzerland’s collection. During the Middle Ages,
Maimonides and
Sherira Gaon (and his son
Hai Gaon) opposed the use of amulets and derided the "folly of amulet writers." Other rabbis, however, approved the use of amulets. Regional traditions surrounding the birth of children often included amulets to ward off the devil, the evil eye, or demons such as
Lilith. So-called miracle rabbi (
Ba’al Shem) would be responsible for writing text amulets and conjuring up the names of God and protective angels.
Midwives would also create amulets, often filled with herbs, to protect mothers and their young children. In Southern
Germany,
Alsace and areas of
Switzerland, young Jewish boys wore textile neckbands or collars for their
Brit Milah. Coins or coral stones on these neckbands were meant to distract the evil eye away from the boys, thus serving as a form of protection. This practice continued until the early 20th century. and
tefillin have been interpreted by some to be forms of amulet, but others disagree. Rabbi and kabbalist
Naphtali Cohen (1645–1719) was said to be an expert in the magical use of amulets. He was accused of causing a fire that broke out in his house and then destroyed the whole Jewish quarter of
Frankfurt, and of preventing the extinguishing of the fire by conventional means because he wanted to test the power of his amulets; he was imprisoned and forced to resign his post and leave the city.
Christianity In
Christianity, regularly attending church, frequently receiving
Holy Communion,
Bible study, and a consistent prayer life are taught as being among the best ways to ward against demonic influence. The
Catholic,
Oriental Orthodox,
Eastern Orthodox,
Lutheran,
Anglican and
Pentecostal denominations of Christianity hold that the use of
sacramentals in its proper disposition is encouraged only by a firm faith and devotion to the Triune God, and not by any magical or superstitious belief bestowed on the sacramental. In this regard,
prayer cloths,
holy oil,
prayer beads,
cords,
scapulars, medals, and other devotional religious paraphernalia derive their power, not simply from the symbolism displayed in the object, but rather from the
blessing of the Church in the name of
Jesus. Using an amulet to represent a commitment, remind oneself or others of a greater concept, or glorify a greater power is, however, not original (or unique) to Christianity. The
crucifix, and the associated
sign of the cross, is one of the key sacramentals used by Christians to ward off evil since the time of the
Early Church Fathers; as such, many Christians wear a
cross necklace. The imperial cross of
Conrad II (1024–1039) referred to the power of the cross against evil. A well-known amulet associated with
Benedictine spirituality present in Christianity of the Catholic, Lutheran and Anglican traditions is the
Saint Benedict medal which includes the
Vade Retro Satana formula to ward off Satan. This medal has been in use at least since the 1700s, and in 1742 it received the approval of
Pope Benedict XIV. It later became part of the
Roman Ritual. Several Christian saints have written about the power of
holy water as a force that repels evil; as such in Christianity (especially in the Catholic, Orthodox, Lutheran, and Anglican denominations), holy water is used in the dominical sacrament of
baptism, as well as for devotional use in the home. Saint
Teresa of Avila, a
Doctor of the Church who reported
visions of Jesus and Mary, was a strong believer in the power of holy water and wrote that she used it with success to repel evil and temptations. Lay Catholics are not permitted to perform solemn
exorcisms, but they can use
holy water, blessed salt, and other sacramentals, such as the Saint Benedict medal or the
crucifix, for warding off evil. Some Catholic sacramentals are believed to defend against evil, by virtue of their association with a specific saint or archangel. The
scapular of St. Michael the Archangel is a Roman Catholic
devotional scapular associated with
Archangel Michael, the chief enemy of Satan.
Pope Pius IX gave this scapular his blessing, but it was first formally approved under
Pope Leo XIII. The form of this scapular is somewhat distinct, in that the two segments of cloth that constitute it have the form of a small shield; one is made of blue and the other of black cloth, and one of the bands likewise is blue and the other black. Both portions of the scapular bear the well-known representation of the Archangel St. Michael slaying the dragon and the inscription "''''" meaning "Who is like God?". Since the 19th century, devout Spanish soldiers, especially
Carlist units, have worn a patch with an image of the
Sacred Heart of Jesus and the inscription
detente bala ("stop, bullet"). Early Egyptian Christians made textual amulets with scriptural
incipits, especially the opening words of the
Gospels, the
Lord's Prayer and
Psalm 91. These amulets have survived from late antiquity (c. 300–700 C.E.), mostly from Egypt. They were written in
Greek and
Coptic on strips of
papyrus,
parchment and other materials in order to cure bodily illnesses and/or to protect individuals from demons. Some believers, especially those of the Greek Orthodox tradition, wear the
filakto, an
Eastern Christian sacramental that is pinned to one's clothing to ward off Satan.
Islam There is a long
cultural tradition of using amulets in Islam, Many Muslims do not consider items used against the evil eye to be talismans; these are often kept in the home rather than worn. Examples of worn amulets are necklaces, rings, bracelets, coins, armbands and
talismanic shirts. In the Islamic context they can also be referred to as
hafiz or protector or
himala meaning pendant. In Muslim cultures, amulets often include texts, particularly prayers, texts from the
Quran,
hadiths (recorded oral histories of early Islam) and religious narratives, and religious names. The word "Allah" (God) is especially popular, as many believe that touching or seeing it wards off evil. The
ninety-nine names of God, and the names of the Islamic prophet Muhammad and his companions, are also used. The names of prophets and religious figures are felt to connect the wearer to the named person, protecting the wearer. The written stories of these people are also considered effective, and are sometimes illustrated with images of the religious figure or omens associated with them. Favoured figures include
Solomon,
Ali ibn Abi Talib and his sons Hasan and Husain, and the
Seven Sleepers of Ephesus. Devotional manuals sometimes also promise that those reading them will be protected from demons and
jinn.
Apotropaic texts may even be incorporated into clothing. Weapons might also be inscribed with religious texts thought to confer protective powers. Scrolls with Qur'anic quotations, prophetic references and sacred symbols were common during war in the Ottoman Empire with Qur'anic verses such as 'victory is from God and conquest is near' (Qur. 6I:13) found on ''ta'wiz'' (or
taʿwīdh; )) worn in combat. Texts packaged in
tawiz ((, )) were most often pre-made when used by the public, but literate wearers could change the verse upon their discretion. A tawiz may be a
pendant, carvings on metal, or even framed
duas. While criticized by some denominations,
Sunni Muslims are permitted to wear ta'wiz as long as it consciously strengthens their bond with Allah and does not come from a belief the
ta'wiz itself cures or protects. s (prayers) written on them. The word ''ta'wiz
, used in Urdu and Hindi comes from the Arabic. The Arabic word taʿwīdh
, meaning "amulet" or "charm" is formed from the verb ʿawwadha'', which means "to fortify someone with an amulet or incantation". Astrological symbols were also used, Abstract symbols are also common in Muslim amulets, such as the
Seal of Solomon and the
Zulfiqar (sword of the aforementioned Ali). In Central and West Asia, amulets (often in the form of triangular packages containing a sacred verse) were traditionally attached to the clothing of babies and young children to give them protection from forces such as the
evil eye. Triangular amulet motifs were often also woven into
oriental carpets such as
kilims. The carpet expert Jon Thompson explains that such an amulet woven into a rug is not a theme: it actually is an amulet, conferring protection by its presence. In his words, "the device in the rug has a materiality, it generates a field of force able to interact with other unseen forces and is not merely an intellectual abstraction."
Materiality of Islamic amulets In the Islamic world, material composition and graphic content are important in determining the apotropaic forces of the amulets. The preferred materials employed by amulets are precious and semi-precious materials, because the inherent protective values of these materials depend hugely upon their natural rarity, monetary value, and symbolic implications. Among the semi-precious materials, carnelian ''('aqiq)'' is often favoured because it was considered as the stone of Muhammad, who was said to have worn a carnelian seal set in silver on the little finger of his right hand. Besides, materials such as jade and jasper are regarded as to possess protective and medicinal properties, including assuring victory in battles, protection from lightning and treating diseases of the internal organs. Sometimes, amulets combine different materials to achieve multiple protective effects. A combination of jade and carnelian, for instance, connotes fertility and embryogenesis. The reddish, transcalent quality of the cornelian resembles blood, which echoes the clot of congealed blood from which Allah created human (Qur. 96:2). Additionally, recurring apotropaic Qur'anic verses are often inscribed on the amulet, praising Allah as the ultimate bestower of security and power and as the provider of the Qur'an and Muhammad.
Diminutive Islamic amulets Diminutive amulets made in the medieval Mediterranean Islamic world include prayers executed with a block print or die (
tarsh). Through folding, these miniature paper amulets are often even further reduced in size in order to fit into a tiny wearable box or tubular pendant cases. Amulets and talismanic objects were used by early Muslims to appeal to God in the first instance. In this respect, these early Islamic amulets differ substantially from Byzantine, Roman, early Iranian, and other pre-Islamic magic which addressed demonic forces or spirits of the dead. The main function of amulets was to ward off misfortune, "evil eye", and the jinn. They were meant to promote health, longevity, fertility, and potency. Despite regional variations, what unites these objects is that they are characterized by the use of particular and distinctive vocabulary of writings and symbols. These can appear in a multitude of combinations. The important elements to these amulets are the 'magic'vocabulary used and the heavy implementation of the Qur'an. The regional variations of these amulets each are unique; however, they are tied together through the Quranic inscriptions, images of Muhammad, astrological signs, and religious narratives. Such text amulets were originally housed within a lead case imprinted with surat al-Ikhlas (Qur. n2: 1-4), a verse that instructs the worshipper to proclaim God's sanctity. As seen in a diverse range of block printed amulets, the lead case should include lugs, which allowed the tiny package to be either sewn onto clothing or suspended from the owner's body. These modest containers were, most likely, kept sealed shut, their printed contents therefore invisible to a possessor who perhaps was not wealthy enough to purchase a non-serialised, handwritten amulet. ==Hinduism==