History of Zakynthos

Zakynthos has been inhabited from at least the Paelolithic Age. The island was important during the Mycenaean period, being mentioned three times on Linear B tablets from Pylos, Messenia. There were also Zakynthian rowers present in the Mycenaean Messenian state. The Mycenaean presence is further attested by the monumental Mycenaean built and tholos tombs that have been excavated on Zakynthos. Most important is the Mycenaean cemetery that was accidentally discovered during road construction in 1971 near the town of Kambi. The ancient Greek poet Homer mentioned Zakynthos in the Iliad and the Odyssey, stating that its first inhabitants were the son of King Dardanos of Arcadia called Zakynthos and his men. Before being renamed Zakynthos, the island was said to have been called Hyrie. Zakynthos was then conquered by King Arkesios of Cephalonia, and then by Odysseus from Ithaca. Zakynthos participated in the Trojan War and is listed in the Homeric Catalogue of Ships which, if accurate, describes the geopolitical situation in early Greece at some time between the Late Bronze Age and the eighth century BC. In the Odyssey, Homer mentions 20 nobles from Zakynthos among a total of 108 of Penelope's suitors. The Athenian military commander Tolmides concluded an alliance with Zakynthos during the First Peloponnesian War sometime between 459 and 446 BC. In 430 BC, the Spartans made an unsuccessful attack upon Zakynthos. The Zakynthians were then enumerated among the autonomous allies of Athens in the disastrous Sicilian expedition. After the Peloponnesian War, Zakynthos seems to have passed under the supremacy of Sparta because in 374 BC, Timotheus, the Athenian commander, on his return from Corfu, landed some Zakynthian exiles on the island and assisted them in establishing a fortified post. These exiles must have belonged to the anti-Spartan party as the Zakynthian rulers applied for help to the Spartans who sent a fleet of 25 ships to the island;. Philip V of Macedon seized Zakynthos in the early 3rd century BC when it was a member of the Aetolian League. In 211 BC, the Roman praetor Marcus Valerius Laevinus took the city of Zakynthos with the exception of the citadel. It was afterwards restored to Philip V of Macedon. The Roman general, Marcus Fulvius Nobilior, finally conquered Zakynthos in 191 BC for Rome. In the Mithridatic War, it was attacked by Archelaus, the general of Mithridates VI of Pontus, but he was repulsed. == Byzantine period (330–1185) ==

The introduction of Christianity on Zakynthos is said to have occurred when either Saint Mary Magdalene or Saint Berenice visited the island in the 1st century AD on their way to Rome. In 324 AD, Zakynthos was made part of the Praetorian prefecture of Illyricum. As the Roman Empire split into Eastern and Western halves and the western half declined, Zakynthos and the rest of the Ionian Islands, now located on the periphery of the Eastern Roman or Byzantine Empire, became vulnerable to attacks from barbarian tribes and pirates. In 466, the Vandal King Genseric pillaged Zakynthos and captured 500 Zakynthian members of the local elite. Later the island was used as a naval station during Belisarius' campaign against the Vandals. The Ionian Islands including Zakynthos remained largely unaffected by the Slavic invasions and settlement of the Greek mainland of the 7th century AD; however, they did suffer raids from Arab pirates in 880 and the Pisans in 1099. During the beginning of the Middle Byzantine era, Zakynthos formed a base for the re-establishment of imperial control and the re-Hellenization of the mainland coast with Greek-speaking settlers from southern Italy and Sicily. From the 9th century, Zakynthos was part of the Theme of Cephallenia, a military-civilian province comprising the Ionian Islands. == Latin rule (1185–1479) ==

After 1185 Zakynthos became part of the County palatine under the Kingdom of Naples until its last Count Leonardo III Tocco fled from the Ottomans in 1479. The title to rule Cephalonia and Zakynthos was originally given to the Greek Margaritos of Brindisi in 1185 for his services to William II. The County then passed on to a branch of the Orsini family until 1325, when it passed briefly to the Angevins of Naples and then from 1357 to the Tocco family. Carlo I Tocco used the county as a springboard for his acquisition of Greek mainland territory. However, facing the advance of the Ottomans, the Tocco successively lost their mainland territories and were once again reduced to the County palatine of Cephalonia and Zakynthos which they held until 1479, when the Ottomans raided the island and Leonardo III Tocco fled. as counts palatine First refugees (1460–1479) By 1460, and during the reign of Mehmed II, the Ottomans eventually controlled most of the Peloponnese with the exception of the remaining Venetian-controlled towns of Argos, Nafplio, Monemvassia, Methoni and Koroni. After the collapse of the Hexamilion, which was supposed to act as a defense across the Isthmus of Corinth; and hence, protect the Peloponnese, Leonardo III Tocco made an agreement with Venice to accept 10,000 refugees from this region. Leonardo III Tocco and his realm was increasingly vulnerable from Ottoman Turkish attacks. These refugees consisted of Greeks, Arvanites and some Venetian officials. Some of them were Stradiotes (see below) which Leonardo III Tocco must have figured would act as a bulwark against the Ottomans. Likely, many Stradiotes returned to the Peloponnese later, perhaps leaving their families in Zakynthos. In April 1463, the Ottomans conquered Argos. The Venetians and their allies attempted a further defence of the Peloponnese but by 1464 more of the peninsula was under Ottoman Turkish control. Consequently, more refugees from the Peloponnese made their way to Zakynthos under the initiative of stradioti leader, Michael Rallis. Again, another wave made its way to Zakynythos in 1470 when the Ottoman Turks made further headway in the Peloponnese. Another group of stradiotes under the leadership of Nikolaos Bochalis and Petros Buas were stationed on the island during the last years of the First Venetian-Turkish War of 1463–1479. And so began the cycle of emigration of primarily Greeks from the Peloponnese, Crete, Rhodes and Cyprus to Zakynthos. In total, a little over 10,000 Arvanitic-speaking Greeks who had retained Venetian citizenship, and some Venetian officials, are said to have emigrated from the west of the Peloponnese to Zakynthos during the period 1460–1479. The newcomers were given land grants to cultivate previously non-arable land and formed an almost independent community represented by a Venetian official called the Consul. The first consul was Martin di Trino. The presence of this community would play a critical role in the defence of Zakynthos in 1479 and its later occupation by the Venetian Republic. is seated on the right. Pasha then proceeded to attack Zakynthos. However, this time he was met by Antonion Loredan. The admiral protested that the island was inhabited by Venetian subjects from the Peloponnese and the Ottoman forces should cease their advances on the island. They then astutely hoisted, undoubtedly with the support of the local autochthonous population, the lion-banner of St Mark on the Castle. The defenders of the island were also protected by 500 stradiotes under the leadership of Stradioti Petros Bouas. He and his company of stradiotes were well known for fighting against the Ottomans in the Peloponnese for many years. They were probably in Zakynthos following another agreement with the Venetian Republic. Petros Bouas was also supported by Nikolaos Bochalis and Petros Bozikis and their own companies of stradiotes who arrived over last few years to the island from the Peloppnese and Napflion. Bozikis was Nikolaos Bochalis's first lieutenant. The matter was then referred to the Porte in Constantinople. However, the forces of Gedik Ahmed Pasha did not wait for the reply and attacked the islanders of Zakynthos. Although they would have been outnumbered, the stradiotes and the local inhabitants managed to defeat the Ottomans twice in battle around the Castle and the town below. They also helped to capture and release hostages the Ottoman Turks had taken previously. The stradiotes again attacked and even took the equipment that was to be used to break the walls of the Castle. Pasha retaliated by attacking any ship near the island and continued small scale raids in the countryside of Zakynthos which was less well defended than the Castle and Aigialo. Finally, a decision came from Constantinople. The Porte decided Zakynthos would become a possession of the Ottomans, but those Zakynthians who chose to could leave before the Ottomans pillaged and occupied the island. Consequently, thousands of Venetian subjects and autochthonous Zakhynthians duly left the island with the assistance of Antonio Loredan's ships. Most of them were transported to Napfaktos, Corfu, and the Peloponnese. The Ottomans slipped 500 soldiers onto the island to capture the Zakynthians before they could leave. However, a group of 20 stradiotes noticed them around the Castle. Once notified, the rest of the stradiotes, and likely, local residents, surrounded these Ottomans and killed them all. Thus, the evacuation of most of the population was successful, and the Zakynthian people were spared the devastation wrought on Lefkada and Cephallonia. Nonetheless, a meaningful number of islandersy were left behind. Many might have hid in caves on the Vrachionas mountain range; however, vast amounts of their property were left to behind to be pillaged by the Ottomans. On 5 November 1479, Gedik Ahmed Pasha gave the order to ravage and then occupy Zakynthos. His forces destroyed most of its churches, monasteries and many of its dwellings. The destruction was said to be horrific. For the time being they only decided to leave a small garrison in the Castle and did not decide to administer the island as a possession. Thus, in late 1479, after an existence of almost three centuries, the County palatine of Cephalonia and Zakynthos disappeared forever. After a short stay in Rome, Leonardo III Tocco returned to Naples and proceeded to plan the recapture of his dominions. Shortly after the death of the Ottoman Sultan, Mehmed II in 1481, Leonardo III Tocco and a Neapolitan fleet in vain summoned the Ottoman Turkish leader of the garrisons of Cephalonia and Zakynthos to surrender. However, Leonardo III Tocco's brother Antonio and a band of Catalan mercenaries easily recovered the two islands as the Ottoman Turkish garrison was small. But Antonio's success alarmed the Venetians, which were fearful of the islands falling again into the hands of the King of Naples or his vassals. Additionally, they were unwilling to break their treaty with the Ottoman Empire and support Antiono Tocco's actions. Consequently, the Venetian governor of Methoni dislodged Antonio Tocco and his band of Catalans from Zakynthos in 1482. Antonio Tocco hung on to Cephallonia for another year or so. However, he irritated the local inhabitants after giving his implicit support of corsairs using the island as a refuge. This also shocked the Venetians. And so, in 1483 after a futile attempt to bribe him, the Venetian Republic aided by many of the local inhabitants prepared to attack him. Thereupon, the garrison of the Fort of St George slew him and opened their gates to the Venetian commander. Lacking any opposition, he made himself master of the whole island and appointed its first Venetian governor. Leonardo III Tocco pathetically asked for the restitution of the two islands from the new Sultan, Bayezid II. However, the Sultan demanded them for himself. In vain, Venice strove to retain Cephallonia but which in 1485 she accepted she had to cede to Bayezid II. It finally passed into her hands in 1500. But she succeeded in keeping Zakynthos on the condition of paying an annual tribute of 500 ducats. As for the Tocco family, they made no further efforts to recover their island domain as the kings of Naples were now threatened by France, and had no wish to irritate the Sultan into a second attack upon Otranto. == Venetian rule (1484–1797) ==

Ottoman rule lasted only until 22 April 1484; however, the Ottoman Turks did not completely occupy Zakynthos during that time – they only stationed a small garrison in the Castle. Then it was swapped with the Ottomans Turks by Venetian secretary Giovanni Dario, negotiator of the Treaty of Constantinople (1479), against neighboring Cephalonia and the provision of an annual tribute of 500 Venetian ducats. From then on Zakynthos remained an overseas colony of the Venetian Republic until its very end in 1797. Administration of the island Venetian rule largely protected the island from Ottoman domination but in its place an oligarchy was gradually established and maintained. As in Venice itself, the Venetian Republic divided Zakynthian society across three broad societal classes, the burghers or Cittadini (some later became nobles) and Popolari based in Zakynthos town and the rural Villani. , 1620 edition. The first edition was published in Venice by Zakynthian Dimitrios Zinos in 1529. The supreme civil and military governor of the Ionian Islands was the provveditore generale da Mar in Corfu. Authority on Zakynthos was divided into the Venetian and domestic authorities. The Venetian authorities represented the sovereign state and its political and military power over Zakynthos. The domestic authorities were appointed by the local Community Council, which included mostly local Greeks but some Latins as well. The Venetian authorities were led by a provveditore and were appointed by the Great Council of Venice. The provveditores responsibilities included security from hostile raids, taxation, religious and other issues and was appointed for about two years. The subordinate Venetian officials were the two consiglieri who performed administrative and judicial functions along with the Provveditore. These three Venetian officials constituted the "regime" of Zakynthos. Initially, the Community Council was a relatively open institution including autochthonous inhabitants, large landowners, traders, shippers, notaries and secretaries, professionals, craftsmen, refugees and Stradioti. Gradually, from the middle of the 16th century, efforts were made to "cleanse" the Community Council with the establishment of a Small Council of 150 and the implementation of civic criteria such as the exclusion of foreigners, illegitimate offspring, manual workers and non-residents of Zakynthos town. This led to the establishment of the ''Libro d'Oro, first compiled on Zakynthos in 1542. It was a formal directory of Cittadini'' and represented the "nobility" among the members of the Community Council. Initially, the main opposition to these measures were wealthy foreign merchants from mainland Greece and Italy and manual workers but gradually wealthy local merchants from often humble origins, who had become rich on mostly currant production and trade, resisted the efforts of the Cittadini. The constant influx of refugees from mainland Greece complicated the complex struggle for power and influence in Zakynthos town. Some family names of the Stradioti include the Soumakis, Roussianos, Chalkomatas from Nafplion, Kapnisis, Commoutos, Minotos, Nomikos from Methoni, Melissinos, Kontostavlis and Skiadopoulos from Mani and Tzibletis, Kumvis, Karreris and Derossis from Cyprus. Other populations also settled on Zakynthos which were not held by Venice but were battlegrounds between Ottoman and Venetian forces such as Mani in the Peloponnese. Even some families from mainland Italy were settled in Zakynthos who were fleeing civil wars going on at that time. They included the less Hellenised at that time of Salviati, Mediki, Valterra, Serra, Bentivolia and Merkati. These waves of Stradioti and refugees resulted in an island population of mixed classes of soldiers and refugees. By 1621, the settlement of people from certain areas was so dense in certain areas of Zakynthos town that the neighbourhood was named after them like Maniatika given the high proportion of people from Mani. Stradioti continued to be employed by Venice as rural gendarmes in the Terra Firma well into the 17th century. Stradioti companies also continued to be garrisoned in some of the towns of Cephalonia, Corfu and Zakynthos. In Zakynthos, a slightly different company of Stradioti from those guarding Zakynthos town were given the responsibility to guard the coast from the frequent pirate raids. They were considered the better fighters with the best horses on the island. They generally kept watch from watchtowers (which are still found on the island) during summer when pirate raids were more numerous and organised themselves using fire or smoke signals to gather fellow Stradioti and defend the island against a raiding party. Stradioti continued their service into the 18th century but over time they virtually became a hereditary caste. Some of the Stradioti or their descendants became members of the Ionian nobility while others took to farming. by Domenico Tintoretto in private collection, Milan c. early 17th century The news of the approaching Ottoman fleet sent the provveditore of Zakynthos, Nicolo Ferro, and the people of the island into a state of panic given that the Sultan's representatives had protested several times recently to the Venetian ambassador in Constantinople about the reconstruction of the Castle of Zakynthos being in violation of their treaty. In retaliation, the Porte threatened to attack the island. Fears of an attack were magnified when Vola Leudari traveled from Corfu to Venice and reported to the Venetian Senate in July 1499 that the Porte was greatly dissatisfied with the Republic for its failure to abide by the terms of the treaty, as well as the Venetians' providing shelter to a number of Christian corsairs and pirates preying on Ottoman shipping. A French fleet of 22 ships, composed largely of Hospitallers and commanded by Gonzave de Cordone, had arrived in the Ionian Sea in mid-August and had anchored near Zakynthos with the intention of assisting the venetians. Grimani had urged the French commander to stay in Zakynthos because of the continuous movements of the Ottoman fleet nearby. However, the two allies fell out and the French decided to attack Kefalonia, which was then held by the Ottomans. The disagreement between the Venetians and the French allowed the Ottoman fleet to enter the Gulf of Corinth and head towards Napfaktos to coordinate their efforts with the land forces under Mustafa Pasha. Almost immediately, the Ottoman Turks traveled to nearby Koroni and demanded its surrender. Shortly after on 15 August 1500 it capitulated as well. Within a few days Pylos (Navarino) also fell. Tragically, in less than a week, Methoni and Koroni, the two eyes of the Republic, were lost. Napflion and Monemvassia were the only two Venetian possessions remaining in the Peloponnese. The road was open more than ever for the Ottoman Turks to move on the Venetian possessions in the Ionian Islands of Zakynthos and Corfu who were now inadequately defended. One of the primary reasons currants became so much more profitable than grain was the increasing demand from the English market and the emerging relationship with English merchants in evading customs duties. In 1545, for the first time, there was some alarm regarding customs evasion, as the local authorities on Zakynthos were concerned that foreign merchants, later identified as English, were exporting out of Zakynthos and Cephalonia with the support of local inhabitants. In 1580, the returning Rettori from Zakynthos and Cephalonia – Gabriele Emo and Alvise Lando – highlighted the increased English presence in the islands. Emo and Lando recommended that an additional levy be raised to offset their encroachment on local trade. Battle of Lepanto (1570–1571) The people of Zakynthos contributed to the famous Battle of Lepanto not only due to the proximity of the battle to the island but also due to the Ottoman raids prior to the battle and the participation of a number of galleys from the island. In early 1570, the provveditore of Zakynthos, Paolo Contarini took active measures for the defense of the island given a new outbreak in the conflict between the Austrians and Ottoman Turks. Throughout spring and early summer of 1571, Ottoman raiders plundered several monasteries around the island but they were met with fierce resistance by local fighters led by George Minotos and Constantine Vlastos. Many Zakynthians found refuge in the Castle. Shortly after, the Ottoman Turks and Barbary pirates raided and sieged the Castle for 30 days but the islanders bravely repelled the attack – the attackers left for neighbouring Cephalonia. After this historic victory, Paolo Contarini invited the leaders to the Government House in the Castle where young nobles performed, for the first recorded time in modern Greek history, Aeschylus's tragedy, The Persians in Italian translation. In early October 1571, the united naval forces of Venice, Spain and Pope Pius V under the leadership of Don Juan of Austria gave battle against the Ottoman fleet at the entrance of the Patras Gulf in the famous Battle of Lepanto (not at Lepanto as is commonly believed). Along with many Greeks from Crete, Corfu, Naxos and Cyprus (also Greeks in the Ottoman fleet), Zakynthian sailors participated in the battle with six galleys financed, equipped and manned by mostly locals. They were led by Andreas Koutouvali, Nicholas Mondinos, Marinos Sigouros (nephew of St. Dionysios), Nicholas Foskardi, Constantine Vlastos, Dimitris Comoutos and Ioannis Montsenigos. St Dionysios is the patron saint and protector of Zakynthos and his feast day celebrated on December 17 and August 24 where the Church celebrates the transfer of his relics to the island from Strofades. After Venice occupied Zakynthos in 1484, it endeavored to re-populate the island with Stradioti and refugees from regions in mainland Greece which it lost to the Ottoman Empire. Given Maniates had fought as allies with Venice against the Ottoman Empire only a few years before, the Maniot Stradioti were one of the sources of Zakynthian settlers. They settled primarily in the coastal area of Aigallon around present-day Zakynthos town and surrounding villages. Prominent families to settle in Zakynthos were Voultsos, Gerakaris, Doxaras, Kontostavlos, Kouroumalos, Koutoufaris, Melissinos, Messalas, Novakos, Samariaris, Skiadopoulos, Stefanopoulos, Someritis and Foukas. Some of these Maniot families were later registered in the Libro d’Oro. A few of these family names are still prominent in Zakynthos today. In addition, the structure of Venetian rule was heavily dependent on local Zakynthians. Given there was no feudal nobility, the Cittadini, members of the local council had political rights and participated in local administration alongside the Venetian Reggimento, had considerable influence. The Popolari had very few political rights. However, in the early years of Venetian rule there was considerable mobility between the Popolari and Cittadini. Gradually, over the course of time the Cittadini attempted to stifle the entry of Popolari into the local governance structures by attempting to close the communal council by adopting the institution of the Small Council of 150 and also by cleaning up the General Council. With the influx of cash from the boom in currant production and trade, discontent increased among some of the newly wealthy Popolari who in turn sought arouse some of the lower strata of the population to rebel. Likely, a decision by the Inquisitore Antonio da Ponte in 1623 to change the rosters for night wardens in Zakynthos town by extending these to all Popolari sparked the Rebellion of the Popolari. The leaders of the Popolari interpreted this as an abuse of power by the Cittadini and a formal codification of the Popolaris inferiority as the Cittadini could easily manipulate the wardenships. By and large, the rich Popolari did not want to overthrow Venetian rule as is commonly thought. Neither did they want to abolish the social hierarchy. Their demands were simply so they could rise within the social hierarchy. One of the most well-known Greek pirates was Zakynthian, Eustathios Romanos or perhaps better known as Manetas. He was active primarily between 1678 and 1684 based around the well-known pirate lair of the Aegean island of Milos. Supposedly, he amassed enormous wealth and owned seven galleys with cannons and a large crew. After the outbreak of the Morean War, he joined the forces of Morisini and became a corsair for the Venetians. During the campaign to conquer Preveza by Venice and her allies, Romanos sailed east and captured Arta. For his later services in helping to conquer Chios, he was awarded the title of Colonel by the Venetian Republic. He was also involved in the trade of Turkish slaves. His son, Georgios also continued the occupation of his father and menaced the coasts of Peloponnese, Zakynthos and Kefalonia. He also employed sailors from these regions and islands. Between 1734 and 1735, in the service of the Austrians, Zorzo Manetas and his brother Andreas Romanos and their seven galleys and another boat which they had acquired in Trieste with Austrian funds, manned with Zakynthians, Kefallonites, Ithacisians and Lefkadians, captured 15 French ships in the Ionian and Aegean Seas. Manetas and his brother were arrested by the Venetians and taken to Corfu. However, a year later they were released and departed for Trieste and Vienna. A significant proportion of the Cretan refugees to Zakynthos were from the upper social strata of Crete and had either Venetian or Cretan titles of nobility and Cittadini status. The Venetian authorities sought to have these titles recognised where these noble Cretan refugees settled including Zakynthos. Additionally, these refugees sought and joined the Community Council, which created tension and engendered strong reactions by the pre-existing Zakynthian upper social strata. Amongst these noble Cretan refugees were the paternal ancestors of Dionysios Solomos. During the 1684 Siege of Santa Maura, Zakynthian troops under Nikolaos Komoutos, Angelos De Negri and Ioannis Koutouvelis participated. The latter had armed his own galley of 80 men. The Venetians then crossed onto mainland Greece and captured several towns. Zakynthos did suffer from serious outbreaks of the plague in 1617, 1646, 1692 and 1728 and also smallpox in 1713, 1748 and 1778. One of the most famous victims of the 1728 plague was the painter and sometime doctor, Hieronymous Plakotos. He and his son died in his doctor's clinic and the local authorities decided to burn it, including his paintings, fearing a further outbreak. From the beginning of the 18th century the sanitary measures taken by the Venetian authorities and enacted by local Cittadini such as strict control of population movements and quarantine, improved lazarettos, better trained public health offices and coastal garrisons, reduced the incidences of outbreaks in the 18th century. In return for the supply of men and arms, the Greek rebels expected massive Russian aid of around 10,000 soldiers and military equipment. Another Orlov brother, Fyodor was sent to coordinate rebels in Morea which was considered the most important strategic area in mainland Greece given some of its important ports. The eventual expeditionary force of four ships, a few hundred soldiers and inadequate arms supplies greatly disappointed the Greeks. Nevertheless, combined Russian-Greek forces attempted a campaign, Along with a Kefalonian force, the Zakynthians the besieged Patras. The siege last 20 days until the reinforcement of Turk-Albanians arrived. In response, many of the Zakynthians and Kefalonians left the area including Gastouni. When they returned to Zakynthos and Kefalonia many requested a pardon from the authorities as their participation in the Orlov Revolt was considered a crime. Following pressure from the Ottomans, Venice attempted to pursue the Zakynthian and Kefalonian leaders. The leader, Vassileios Makris escaped punishment but was pursued later in 1776 for his leadership of the Zakynythian force in the siege of Patras. However, the case against Makris and others like Nikolaos Fourtounis was finally heard in 1781 and they were eventually pardoned. The first lodge in Greece is considered to have been created in 1782 in Corfu under the name of Beneficenza; however, there is evidence the lodge functioned irregularly since at least 1771. The lodge was under the direction of the Grand Lodge of Verona, based in Padua, Italy. Although, this lodge would close and re-open again with the arrival of the French, other lodges were also opened in the early 1800s in Corfu. Soon Freemasons would spread the organizational structure of Freemasonry all around the Greek diaspora in Europe and other Greek islands such as Zakynthos. At least from 1810, there operated two lodges in Zakynthos. Surprisingly, there is no evidence the first lodge was under the authority of a superior authority. By spring 1815, the Zakynthian Dionysios Romas, established the first official lodge in Zakynthos called Renaissance Phoenix established under its parent lodge in Corfu. Members included figures which played, and would continue to play, a critical role in events over the next few years such as Dionysios Romas, Konstantinos Dragonas, Panagiotis Stefanou, Dionysios Flambouriaris and Ioannis Martinengos. Many of these people also became members of the Filiki Etairia and would go on to contribute to the Greek War of Independence. In 1816, the lodges of Corfu and Zakynthos established the first Grand Lodge in what would become Greece, the Grand Anatolian Lodge of Hellas. The Renaissance Phoenix, under the leadership of Romas, Dragonas, Stefanou, and later Giorgios Tertsetis and Antonios DeRossis, and many others were instrumental in establishing many important civil associations and organisations many of which continue until today such as the Philharmonic Association, the Philodramatic Association, Theatre Foskolos, Medical Society of Zakynthos and club, The Zakynthos. This lodge would endure under until 1848. Other lodges would be established over time which would include other prominent Zakynthian members such as Alexandros Romas. Today, two lodges operate in Zakynthos, the Astir of the East and Helios. == French Republican rule (1797–1799) ==

By the time of the French Revolution, the Republic of Venice was already in serious decline given the opening of new sea routes outside of the Mediterranean and the loss of many territories in the eastern Mediterranean. Even in areas under Venetian occupation like the Ionian Islands, there was widespread discontent given heavy and unequal taxation and aristocratic form of governance and control. Consequently, the European Enlightenment; and specifically, the ideas of the French Revolution and the Modern Greek Enlightenment found fertile ground in places like Zakynthos. These ideas were often transmitted by the sons of Nobles and Cittadini who had studied primarily in Italy and/or by foreign agents stationed in on the island. Many of these ideas were also propagated by newly formed political associations constituted by people from all classes of Zakynthian society, which were influenced by Freemasonry and Carbonarism, and resembling the Jacobins in France. In addition, the patriotic poems of Antonios Martelaos and Thomas Danelakis, the patriotic hymn O Thourios of Rigas Ferraios, and the La Marsellaise and Carmagnoletranslated into Greek are said to have been very popular in the taverns, salons and streets of Zakynthos during this period. The Zakynthians enamoured and increasingly active in realising these ideas were called Patriots. However, reactionary forces often led by the Nobili also began to mobilise to counter the so-called Zakynthian Patriots. Conspiracy to massacre the Patriots (1796) Many of the Zakynthian patriotic revolutionaries coalesced around the figure of the French consul, Constantine-Yakynthis Guys. The consulate was also the source of much Jacobin propaganda spread around Zakynthos town and the rest of the island. Probably due to fear engendered by reactionary forces on the island, on 20 October 1796 the French consulate was set on fire and the blame was laid at the hands of the Venetian authorities for inflaming some of the locals to resist the messages of the French Revolution. The local Nobili requested the Venetian regimento to deal with the Zakynthian Patriots but the Venetians authorities of the island were largely powerless against the growing revolutionary tide and the emerging geopolitical situation in the Ionian Islands and northern Italy instigated by the military victories of Napoleon. In response, the Nobili who had obstinately rejected the new ideas of the French Revolution and the Modern Greek Enlightenment, took matters into their own hands and organised a council at the palazzo of Dimitrios Comoutos. One of the leaders, Draganigos Makris proposed local hoodlums and gangs massacre leadership of the Zakynthian Patriots during the litany of All-Saints. Although, it is documented that this plan had the support of most of the Nobili, it was shrewdly rejected by Dimitrios Comoutos for fear it would incite the French to occupy the island. However, it was quite clear early on that the French were not interested in giving the islands self-determination in accordance with the principles of the French Revolution and the desires of the Ionian Islanders; but, occupation as exemplified by the letter Napoleon sent to Gentili: ''You will make every effort to win the sympathy of the people there, since you have to govern them ... If the inhabitants there declare a willingness to be independent, you have to deal with this desire.'' At this stage, Zakynthians were not aware of French policy. In every square across the Ionian Islands, including St Marks in Zakynthos, the locals planted the Tree of Freedom. Locals also ran to the houses of the Nobili and collected their wigs, Venetian uniforms, coats of arms and parchments with nobility titles. They gathered these items in central squares like St Marks and ceremoniously burned them. The crowd even sought the wig of the last Venetian provveditore, Francesco Bragadin but he demanded payment for his wig. The crowd raised the necessary funds and then burnt his wig too. They also burnt the detested Libro d'Oro, containing the pedigree trees of local Noble families. The former Nobili in Zakynthos locked themselves in their palazzo for fear of retribution from the lower classes. In some sense, the Popolari had finally triumphed after their humiliations in 1628 and 1683. But this was not to last. And even very early on during French rule support for a rival power was evident. For example, 20 days after their arrival, a crowd of Zakynthians chanted for the Russian emperor and raised the Russian imperial flag in Zakynthos town. The French garrison had to disperse the crowd by force. The French initially tried to organize the administration of the Ionian Islands according to their own revolutionary standards that included the greater participation of lower classes than Venetian rule. In Zakynthos doctors, lawyers, former so called Nobles, Cittadini, Popolari and clerics from the Orthodox and Catholic churches were included in a 40-member interim governing council. Importantly, this council included Antonios Martinengos, who was to play a key role in Zakynthian politics for the next 20 years or so. Furthermore. the civil and criminal courts were reorganised, a jury system was gradually introduced, the first public schools were established and the first printing presses were set up. The Ionian Islanders even adopted the French Revolutionary Calendar in official documents dating back to the 1st year of Freedom and establishing a 4 August national holiday. However, the initial Zakynthian enthusiasm for the French rapidly dissipated primarily due to discontent about greater levels of taxation, the method of tax collection and the habit of French authorities borrowing from local merchants and failing to later meet their obligations. Also, promises of self-government did not come to fruition. But what really bothered the locals was the growing contempt French had for their institutions, like the Orthodox religion, its Church and other traditions. Ionians Islanders including Zakynthians mobilised by Nobili who had lost their privileges began to conduct public protests and form political associations to disseminate new ideas against French rule. These activities were also noticed by the Russians, the British and the Ottoman Turks. == Septinsular Republic (1800–1807) ==

Following French naval losses in the Mediterranean, and mobilization by the Russians and Ottoman Turks alarmed at previous French advances in the Mediterranean and even mainland Greece – and encouraged by the British – the French were forced to surrender the Ionian Islands under the pressure of siege and assault by Russian and their Ottoman Turkish allies. Many large landowners of Zakynthos, some merchants and the Church assisted. One of the most difficult problems the nascent Septinsular state had to overcome was the formation of a strong central government out of the civil administrations that Ushakov had established on each island. The general lawlessness of the islands and the prominence of vendetta feuds made governing by the local civil administration difficult, let alone a central government located elsewhere. Even during the convocation of a Senate in Corfu in late 1799 to establish the central government experienced difficulties due to the separatist tendencies in Zakynthos and Cephalonia – they refused to send delegates to Corfu. The general crisis was averted when Ushakov went as far as having to persuade, with a suggestion of force, these islands to send delegates to Corfu for the Ionian Assembly. Over time, the senate in Corfu degenerated into pro-Russian and pro-Ottoman Turkish camps. Not surprisingly, the old Nobili favoured an authoritarian form of central government preferred by the Ottomans, whereas the Cittadini and Popolari favoured broader representation and protection from the Ottoman Empire. Several hundred Zakynthians even sent a petition on April 4, 1799, requesting the inclusion of the Popolari in government to ward off further civil strife on the island. Coup d'état of Antonios Martinengos (1801) The governance of Zakynthos was also complicated by the intervention of other foreign powers like the British. Britain had steadily grown alarmed by the growth of Russian power in the Mediterranean; particularly, Corfu. It also had a strong interest in the currant trade between Zakynthos and Kefalonia and northern Europe. In order to provide a counterweight to the power of Russia, Ottoman Turkish Empire and the Septinsular central government, and also because of narrow economic interests, some Zakynthian Nobili and Cittadini maintained contact with the British Admiral Nelson via the intermediary of Spyridon Foresti, the British consul in Corfu. The Zakynthian local council even went as far as to award Nelson a Gold Sword in appreciation for his efforts to help in removing the French from the island. Throughout 1800 agitation increasingly grew on Zakynthos, as the Cittadini, Popolari and peasants began to understand that essentially complete power had been handed back to the Nobili of each island which were given almost free rein to oppress the local population again as they had done for centuries. In addition, one of the articles in the constitution of the Septinsular Republic only recognised the Nobili included in the Libro d'Oro before November 1799 – which would have excluded the newly included Antonions Martinengos, his brother-in-law and Stelios Stavropodis. Another consequence was they would be excluded from the local council. This created another rupture with the senate in Corfu and their allies among the Nobili on Zakynthos. As a consequence, a small Septinsular force from Kerykra was ordered to be sent to Zakynthos to quell dissent. At the same time in Zakynthos, 2,000 armed peasants under the leadership of the Nobili gathered at the estate of Nikolaos Foskardis and planned to lay siege to Zakynthos town and deal with Antonios Martinengos and his party. In turn, Antonios Martinengos's forces took all measures to defend the town and the local council. In 1801, James Callander, a British officer under the service of Nelson, arrived in Zakynthos to spread propaganda against the French regime on the island. He had met with Antonios Martinengos and his party and they came to the conclusion they needed each other to realise their objectives on the island. Broader geopolitical events had evolved and the Russian military contingent was withdrawn from Zakynthos and some of the other Ionian Islands. On the night of 7 February, under fire from Foskardis's peasant forces, armed men from Martinengos's party led by Tzortzi Strouza-Solomos, along with the support of the British officer James Callander, overpowered the garrison in the castle, lowered the Russian and Ottoman Turkish flags and raised the British flag. Furthermore, the following day Martinengo's forces declared independence from the central government of the Septinsular Republic. In effect, initiating a coup d'état. They faced little resistance from the peasants under the guidance of Foskardis and Septinsular troops based in Corfu failed to arrive. A representative of the Septinsular Republic who also happened to be Zakynthian, Nikolaos-Draganigos Sigouros-De Syllas arrived on the island on 11 February, and met with the British consul, Sargint, Callander, Martinengos and the Nobili. Sigouros-De Syllas then proceeded to visit his palazzo in Zakynthos town despite warnings from people in the local council that they could not guarantee his safety from the Cittadini and Popolari. A short time later, an armed group peasants and Popolari under the orders of Martinengos surrounded the palazzo of De Syllas and demanded he leave the island. The next day almost the whole town was up in arms against Sigouros-De Syllas. Some members of the Cittadini and Popolari had now set up a cannon threatening the palazzo of Sigouros-De Syllas. Also, a ship from the Septinsular Republic tried to dock in Zakynthos but was also threatened by an armed men representing Antonios Martinengos. Finally, Sigouros-De Syllas and his family was led away to an Ottoman Turkish frigate anchored off Zakynthos by a British escort. Furthermore, the forces under the leadership of the Nobili, Foskardis noticing that the British were providing some legitimacy to the part of Martinengos, also deemed it prudent to withdraw. The island of Zakynthos was now effectively independent of the Septinsular Republic. In September 1801, five Ottoman Turkish and one British warship carrying British soldiers appeared in the port of Zakynthos. After some negotiations, the request by the visiting British naval captain was granted and the party of Martinengos took down the British flag from the castle seven months after having raised it. Zakynthos was reconciled, at least for the time being, to the Septinsular Republic. The Ionian Assembly now handed power in Zakynthos to a three-man group called the Syndikoi which was elected by the Great council of the Nobili. The Syndikoi in turn elected a chancellor to govern the island for four months. Afterwards it was rotated to other members of the Syndikoi. The first Syndikoi elected were Antonios Komoutos, Ioannis Martinengos and Petros Chrysoplevris. Given his duties in leading the local militia, Ioannis Martinengos appointed Stelios Stravopodis in his position. Clearly, the party of Antonios Martinengos had retained power in Zakynthos. Constitutional revision (1803) After continued tension throughout the Ionian Islands, the constitution of the Septinsular Republic was revised in 1803. The so-called Aristocratic Constitution because its first article stated, “The Republic of the United Seven Islands is one and aristocratic”. Russia had appointed Georgios Motsenigos as an executive of Russian and Ottoman Turkish interests in the Republic in 1802. Furthermore, it appointed Antonios Komoutos as President of the Republic and the Kerkyrian and future prime minister of Greece, and Ioannis Kapodistrias as secretary-general. Spyridon Neranztis was also recruited to help draft the revision of the constitution of the Septinsular Republic and also became financial administrator, and Dionysios Flambouriaris became minister of the interior. Three out of the four ministries of the Septinsuler Republic were now held by Zakynthians. Despite the moniker it was given, the Constitution of 1803, was generally believed to have better balanced the interests of the Nobili and some Cittadini on one side and the Cittadini, Popolari and peasants on the other. Under the revised Constitution of 1803 hereditary titles were abolished in favour of a bourgeois aristocracy composed of old Nobili and Cittadini whose membership was based strictly on income and educational achievements. The Popolari and especially the peasants still have no real representation. As a result, dissatisfaction reigned across all the classes which led to further trouble. Significantly, the revised Constitution also recognised Greek, along with Italian, as one of the two official languages of the Republic and Eastern Orthodoxy as the state religion. Inadvertently, this was an important step towards ultimate national liberation. The overwhelming majority of the people on these islands during this period were ethnically Greek and Christians, with a small number of Jews on Corfu, Zakynthos and an even smaller number on Cephallonia. The majority of the Christians were Eastern Orthodox. However, there was a significant number of Catholics, especially on Corfu and less so in Zakynthos and Cephallonia. Another important development during the revision of the Constitution of 1803, was the formation of a 1,200 strong militia for each island recruited from all classes of the islands. Some members of the old Ionian Island Nobili resisted this – harking back to their arguments made on the eve of the Rebellion of the Popolari in 1628 – arguing that only peasants should be subject to military obligations. However, it was finally passed in the Ionian Assembly. Many Arvanite-speaking irregulars served in this militia. Critically, the militia was initially controlled by James Callandar was appointed to lead the militia initially. A short while later after the departure of James Callander, Antonios Martinengos's brother, Ioannis was appointed to lead the militia There was a further revision of the Constitution in 1806 which gave Russia further power to intervene in the internal affairs of the Septinsular Republic. More positively, for the next couple of years the economy of Zakynthos and many of the Ionian Islands grew strongly; particularly the production and trade of currants in Zakynthos and Cephallonia and olive oil in Corfu. Also, shipping was also a rapidly growing industry; particularly, in Cephallonia. However, broader geopolitical events were again about the change the political situation in Zakynthos and the Ionian Islands. == French Napoleonic Rule (1807–1809) ==

In 1806, the Ottoman Empire declared war on the Russian Empire; and thereafter, the Septinsular Republic was ceded to Napoleon's First French Empire under the terms of the Treaty of Tilsit in 1807. In August 1807, the French General Cesar Berthier arrived in Corfu from southern Italy with 4,000 French and close to equal the number of Italian troops and artillery. Napoleon placed high strategic value on Corfu ahead of the other Ionian Islands, Parga on the Greek mainland and even Sicily. And so, most of his forces were concentrated on Corfu rather than Zakynthos and Kefalonia. He only placed a 1,200 strong Greek-Albanian and Italian militia, 25–30 French soldiers and four French officers on each island. This relatively small garrison would have consequences later. Initially, the Constitution of the Septinsular Republic was abolished, the islands were annexed and the islanders became subjects of the French Empire placing them under the governornate of Berthier in late 1807. His troops symbolically raising the French flag over the citadel of Fortezza Vecchia in Corfu in place of the flag of the Septinsular Republic. Obviously, this caused serious indignation and dissent among Zakynthians and other Ionian Islanders. However, ultimately the islands were not annexed by France and she decided to largely retain their institutions of government and the Constitution of 1806. On March 28, 1808, Berthier was replaced by his former assistant, François-Xavier Donzelot. The merchants of Zakynthos and Kefalonia were also very displeased with the consequences of the Continental Blockade applied by Napoleonic France during this period. This blockade particularly impacted the currant producers and merchants of Zakynthos and Kefalonia given they relied so heavily on British markets to sell their produce. The blockade also resulted in food shortages on the islands. It is no surprise that there were many elements on the island; particularly, among the Civili and even some Popolari, which were sympathetic to the British because they believed it was a stronger guarantor to their commercial interests. People like the former President of the Septinsular Republic, Antonios Komoutos maintained secret contacts with the former British diplomat, Spyridon Foresti who was then living in Malta. In the meantime, for many years 4,000–5,000 farm hands would travel annually to the Peloponnese and Roumeli from the island of Zakynthos. The Zakynthian farm hands brought back valuable grain as payment for their services – given Zakynthos often suffered grain shortages due to the over-reliance on currant trade and production – but they also started to imbue their fellow mainland Greeks with ideas and songs of freedom such as Rigas Ferraios's battle hymn and Zakynthians poets such as Antonios Martelaos which sometimes upset the local Ottoman Turkish authorities. At the same time, the previous Russian occupiers had established mercenary forces on the island with a view to using those forces for their interests at a later time. Specifically, two regiments had spent time training on the island, one under the command of Anagnoti Papagiorgiou who led Peloponnese forces and another Pieros Grigorakis who led a Maniot force. In addition, the local militia was providing a valuable opportunity for local Zakynthians to train in warfare. Most significantly, in April 1806, Theodoros Kolokpotronis, who would play in the leading role in the Greek War of Independence, visited Zakynthos for the second time. He came into immediate contact with locals such as Dionysios Romas who shared similar visions of independence. The seeds were being planted for what would come later. British invasion of the Ionian Islands (1809) A year after the initial French Napoleonic occupation of Zakynthos, the wider European conflict brought the British Brigadier-General, John Oswald to the Mediterranean, in charge of a brigade harrying the coast of French-occupied Italy, Illyria and the Ionian Islands. Before the impending invasion of the Ionian Islands, Spyridon Foresti via Komoutos and other leaders promised the Zakynthians that the British would not come as occupiers but as liberators and help to re-establish the Septinsular Republic and raise the flag of the Septinsular Republic. Supported by his party representing the old interests of the Nobili, Komoutos expected to become President of the re-established Septinsular Republic. He was supported in Zakynthos in this endeavour by the dominant party of Antonios Martinengos. On 1 October 1809, Oswald led an invading force to Zakynthos and quickly compelled the French-led garrison to surrender by 4 October 1809. Over the next few days, Oswald and his crew captured Kefalonia and then later Ithaca and Kythera. This ushered in the beginning of the British possession of these islands until 1864. The large and influential faction of pro-British sympathsisers on Zakynthos and Kefalonia led by people like Antonios Komoutos, allied with Antonios Martinengos and his followers and the machinations of Foresti in Malta helped to ease the invasion. After the invasion of Kefalonia, Oswald announced to the islanders: We present ourselves to you, inhabitants of Cephalonia, not as Invaders, with views of conquest, but as Allies who hold forth to you the advantages of British protection, in the freedom and extension of your commerce, and in the general prosperity of your island. Contrast these obvious advantages with the privations you have laboured under since you were pass over from the yoke of Russians to that of the French, and deprived at one blow, of your independence as a nation, and your rights of freedom as men. We demand from you no exertions but such as a necessary for your own liberation – no other aid than what reciprocal advantage requires. However, the islands were occupied by the British until 1815, when they were transformed into a British colony; enosis with Greece would not happen until 1864. == British Occupation (1809–1815) ==

After the capture of Zakynthos, Kefalonia and Ithaci, in 1810, Oswald and Richard Church, an Irish Captain invaded Lefkada with a force of 2,000 British soldiers and Greek volunteers mostly gathered from mainland Greece and Zakynthos and formed into the 1st Greek Light Infantry. The combined British and Greek forces captured Lefkada after heavy fighting in April 1810. For this Oswald was made governor of the Ionian Islands and based in Zakynthos. He rapidly formed diplomatic relations with the Ottoman Turkish governors of mainland Greece. When Oswald left for England in 1811, Richard Church succeeded him. Corfu was still defended by a strong French garrison under General Donzelot. As late as 1814, it was ordered to surrender to Sir James Campbell by Louis XVIII. == Greek War of Independence (1821–1832) ==

Filiki Eteria The Filiki Eteria (or Society of Friends) was a secret 19th-century organization created to end the Ottoman rule of Greece and establish an independent Greek state. The Society members were mainly young Greek merchants from Russia and Romania, local Greek chieftains and clergy, some Phanariots and scholars inside and outside Greece. The Society was responsible for initiating the Greek War of Independence in the spring of 1821. Fired by their zeal for the liberation of Greece ordinary citizens and prominent members of Zakynthian society were also active members of the Filiki Eteria. Since the Orlov Revolt in 1770, as had always happened in Zakynthian history, a groups of Peloponnesian refugees had settled on the island.; although, they had retained links with their ancestors in the Peloponnese. When the Peloponnesian chieftain and unofficial leader, Theodoros Kolokotronis, was being pursued by the Ottoman Turkish authorities he naturally fled to nearby Zakynthos where over the course of time he trained with the various occupying powers of the island. Kolokotronis was initiated into the Filiki Eteria in Zakynthos. Despite the potentially serious consequences it would have to their reputation and social position, several prominent Zakynthians joined and became active in the Filiki Eteria. They were, amongst others, Dionysios Romas, Anastasios Flambouriaris, Frangiskos Karvelas, Nikolaos Kolyvas, Antonios Martelaos, Constantinos Dragonas, Caesar Efstathiou Logothetis and Antonios Martinengos. Some of them were issued arrest warrants by the British colonial government of the time, such as Dionysios Romas and Anastastasios Flambouriaris, and had to flee the island. Dionysios Solomos also became a member in 1818. In addition, Nikolaos and Panagiotis Stefanou whose grandfather migrated to Zakynthos after the Orlov Revolt joined the Filiki Eteria and participated in the Greek War of Independence. Panagiotis Stefanou helped in the liberation of the harem of Hirsut Pasha during the fall of Tripoli in 1821. Giorgios Tertsetis was another prominent participant in the Filiki Etaria and the Greek War of Independence. After returning from his studies in Italy, he joined the Filiki Eteria and then joined the war in the Peloponnese. He became a professor and judge soon after the Greek state was established and defended Kolokotronis against charges of high treason. With the outbreak of the Greek War of Independence in late March 1821, some Greek military leaders recognised the Muslim-Albanian menace around Lalas and the possibility of coming to the aid of the coreligionists, the Ottoman Turks. As a result, the local Greeks initially attempted to siege the Muslim Albanians of Lalas but were not successful. Shortlybafter on May 13, a small force of Greek soldiers occupied a mountainous position near Lalas. Their position was vulnerable and likely to fall until the appearance of 500 volunteers of Ionian Islanders from Cephallonia and Zakynthos and their four cannons. The Zakynthian volunteers were led by Dionysios Sembrikos. By late 1823, Kolokotronis resigned from the Executive. Shortly after, the Senate removed key people from their posts sympathetic to Kolokotronis. In response, members of the old Executive, senators sympathetic to their cause and Kolokotronis and his supporters set up a rival government in Tripolis. In 1824, the forces of the new Executive under the leadership of Andreas Londos besieged Tripolis and Nauplion, which was held by Kolokotronis's son. After one month of fighting an agreement was reached between Kolokotronis and Londos and his supporters. In May, the first phase of the civil war officially ended; however, most members of the new Executive were displeased by the moderate terms of the agreement Londos had brokered. Despite the strengthening of the Senate and the new Executive's position, and further buttressed by an English loan, a second civil war broke out in October triggered by resistance to tax levies. However, with assistance of military captains from Roumeli, the rebels was crushed and Kolokotronis and his supporters were imprisoned. In 1825, Muhammad Ali of Egypt agreed with the Ottoman Turks to send his son Ibrahim Pasha to Greece. Ibrahim Pasha landed at Methoni in February, and a month later he was joined by his army of 10,000 infantry and 1,000 cavalry. The Greeks were taken by surprise. Ibrahim proceeded to defeat the Greek garrison on the small island of Sphacteria off the coast of Messenia. Ibrahim ravaged the Western Peloponnese and killed Papaflessas at the Battle of Maniaki. The Greeks were now in disarray. To stop the Egyptians they released Kolokotronis from captivity but he too was unsuccessful. By the end of June, Ibrahim had captured the city of Argos and was within striking distance of Nauplion. The city was saved by General Makriyannis and Dimitrios Ypsilantis. Ibrahim's eventually left for Tripolis. At the same time, the Ottoman Turkish armies in Central Greece were besieging the city of Missolonghi for the third time. The Zakynthos Committee sent their draft Act of Submission to the leaders of the struggle. Despite it being an Act of Submission it did not constitute a dependence on Britain. The leaders, including Kolokotronis discussed the document, and despite some initial hesitation, signed it on 6 July 1825 and sent it back to the Zakynthos Committee. Other leaders signed the document later in July and it was approved by the legislative committee on 1 August 1825. With the Act of Submission proposal, the Zakynthos Committee to achieve unity of purpose among the various factions of the Greek War of Independence which was sadly absent for many years. In effect, the Zakynthos Committee was now leading the Greek War of Independence struggle. By September 1825, the Act of Submission was presented to the ambassador to the Ottoman Empire, Stratford Canning in London. He initially rejected the Act as he did not believe Britain should change their neutral stance between the Greeks and the Ottoman Turks. However, the growing realisation that Russia was likely to continue to grow their influence in the Eastern Mediterranean if the British did not act, forced their hand. == British rule (1815–1864) ==

After a second period under French Napoleonic control (1807–1809) following the Treaty of Tilsit, Zakynthos was occupied by the Great Britain in 1809 after they defeated a nearby French fleet. It was then made part of the British protectorate of the United States of the Ionian Islands from 1815 to 1864. The Treaty of Paris in 1815 charged Britain with protecting the 'single, free and independent' United States of the Ionian Islands. In 1817, the British government passed a restrictive Constitution and required the ratification of the Constitution by the Protective Power despite the existence of the Ionian Parliament, and maintained garrisons in the forts at the expense of each island and kept foreign affairs in the hands of Britain. In addition, the Protective Power showed little sympathy for the refugees from the Greek War of the Independence. Events of Ipsolithos (1821) In 1821, following the outbreak of the Greek War of Independence, an Ottoman Turkish ship carrying Muslim refugees, after having been pursued by Greek naval vessels, tried to dock in the port of Zakynthos to obtain provisions. The local Zakynthians became angered given the atrocities committed by the Ottoman Turks against Christians in the Ottoman Empire resulting in the infamous Events of the Ipsolithos. A small group of British soldiers and their presiding officer attempted to ensure the refugees received supplies and adhered to the quarantine regulations. However, the local Zakynthians, some of whom some were armed attacked the British soldiers, killing one and wounding several soldiers including the officer. Consequently, the serving Lord High Commissioner of the Ionian Islands, Thomas Maitland declared martial law for the second time in two years. The declaration also included a ruling to disarm, with a few exceptions, the local population. Maitland also pursued the ring leaders of the attack including Ioannis Klavdianos, Theodoros Petas, Panagiotis Roumeliotis, Dionysios Kontonis and Antonis Grampsas. They were eventually executed based on controversial testimonies by public hanging near Agios Nikolas to Molou in Zakynthos town. Their homes were also ordered demolished by the colonial administration. Other Zakynthians who had agitated against British rule were either imprisoned or exiled. After they were executed, the bodies of four of the ringleaders were hung in gibbets on the hill overlooking Zankythos town, a common practise in Britain at the time. The body of Yiannis Kavdianos was hung in a gibbet opposite his home in rural Zakynthos. His mother ultimately went mad at having to view this scene on a daily basis. Other notable Radicals from Zakynthos were Nathaniel Domeneginis, elected Member of the Ionian Parliament in 1850. He signed, along with Frangiskos Domeneginis and Angelos Desyllas, the first resolution of the Union with Greece. He wrote various leaflets and articles in favor of the Union and against the continuation of British rule. Excited by the revolt in Epirus in 1854, he decided to fight under the command of the generals, Karaiskakis and Tzavelas. In the Battle of Petta in 1854, he was arrested and executed by the Ottomans. Ioannis Lisgaras was a notary from Zakynthos who in 1851 was exiled to the island of Othoni. He was elected Member of the Ionian Parliament of 1852. He fought for the Union with Greece with numerous articles and brochures. In 1866, he was elected Mayor of Zakynthos and was distinguished for his honesty and his excellence in administration and finance. Frangiskos – Lambrinos Domeneginis, cousin of Nathaniel Domeginis, was a composer, music teacher, conductor, painter and an enthusiastic Radical. In 1829, he took part in the Greek Revolution as an officer of the regular cavalry and distinguished himself in operations around Euboea. He signed the first resolution of the Ionian Parliament and a year later he was exiled to Antikythira. During his exile, he was re-elected as a member. In 1853, he returned to the House and submitted a resolution, together with Lombardos and Verikios, for the return from the Kefalonian Radical exiles Elias Zervos and Iosif Momferatos. He was involved in the Italian-Greek committees where he came into contact with Giuseppe Garibaldi and other prominent activists in the Risorgimento. Dimitrios Kallinikos was very wealthy and well-educated and together with Ioannis Ioannopoulos, Georgios Verikios and Pavlos Tavoularis published the newspaper O Rigas, the first radical newspaper from Zakynthos. He was exiled in 1851. Shortly before the Union with Greece he fell out with the Radicals and ceased participation in the movement. Georgios Verikios was a journalist, orator and prefect. He was one of the first to support the right of self-determination and Union with Greece. He was the editor of the Magos and O Rigas newspapers. Verikios was exiled from the Ionian Islands by the colonial administration for his ideas. == Union with Greece (1864) ==

The first free Parliament of the Ionian Islands declares that it is the unanimous, firm and resolute desire of the Ionian people to acquire their independence and unite with the rest of their Nation, liberated Greece. A declaration from the Ionian Parliament in late 1864. And so in 1864, Zakynthos together with all the other Ionian Islands, became a full member of the Greek state, ceded by Britain to stabilize the rule of the newly crowned Danish-born King of the Hellenes, George I. The last British troops left the Ionian Islands on June 2, 1864. Cultural life continued to blossom in Zakynthos in the years following unification; however, whereas in the years prior to the period of British rule, talented and ambitious Zakynthians would be educated in Italy and often return to the island, increasingly they would migrate to Athens. This trend accelerated in the years following unification with Greece. Arguably, over the long term this was detrimental to the cultural life of the island but it also meant that Ionian Island culture was exported to the rest of the Greek world. Balkan Wars (1912–1913) First World War (1914–1918) The First World War period was dominated by two parties on Zakynthos, the Romas and the Lomvardos party. The Romas party were elected as deputies for the Liberals led by Greek prime minister, Eleftherios Venizelos whereas the Lomvardos party for the Royalists. It was not unknown for key figures in the parties to change sides. Many of the elements of the National Schism were reflected in these two local parties. The clubs situated on the island played a key role as meeting points for these two political poles but there was also rallies, agitation and reports of general tension on the streets of Zakynthos town. Due to the National Schism and the ongoing First World War, Anglo-French forces fortified the Ionian Islands from 1915 in support of Eleftherios Venizelos and Entente. A French naval squadron landed 600 men on Zakynthos in late 1915 and also another 280 Senegalese (a French colony of the time) in early 1917. A French flag was flown over the Castle. In 1917, the French Senegalese soldiers departed and the French flag was lowered from the Castle. The population of Zakynthos had been reduced dramatically in this period due to emigration and starvation during 1916–1917. From 49,104 inhabitants in 1906, the population was 37,340 in 1920. Second World War (1940–1945) Mussolini-led Italy invaded Greece in 1940 but the invasion was halted after the Greek army pushed the Italians back into Northern Epirus and some of Albania. This forced the allies of Fascist Italy, the Germans, to come to the aid of Italy. The combined forces engaged the Greek forces in 1941, Greece was then occupied by Nazi Germany. Germany occupied and administered important cities such as Athens and Thessaloniki, the Bulgarians controlled the north-eastern portion of the country, while Italy controlled the majority of the Peloponnese and the Ionian Islands. During the Nazi occupation of Greece, Mayor Karrer and Bishop Chrysostomos refused Nazi orders to turn in a list of the members of the town's Jewish community for deportation to the death camps. Instead they hid all (or most) of the town's Jewish people in rural villages. According to some sources, all 275 Jews of Zakynthos survived the war; however, other sources state that about thirty died of starvation, or that some elderly Jews "disappeared" in a German SS truck. Statues of the Bishop and the Mayor commemorate their heroism on the site of the town's historic synagogue, destroyed in the earthquake of 1953. The whole administration of the Ionian Islands was set up by the Central Civil Affairs Office based in Corfu with a vice governor on each island including Zakynthos with authority to issue decrees about administrative matters. The head of the Office belonged directly to the Italian Ministry of Foreign Affairs. However, very few of the proposals were implemented as the Germans were concerned of further alienating the Greek population which was already strongly opposing the Bulgarian annexations in the north-east. ==References==