Traditionally, the Trojan War arose from a sequence of events beginning with a quarrel between the goddesses
Hera,
Athena, and
Aphrodite caused by Eris.
Eris, the goddess of discord, was not invited to the wedding of
Peleus and
Thetis, and so arrived bearing a gift: a
golden apple, inscribed "for the fairest". Each of the goddesses claimed to be the "fairest", and the rightful owner of the apple. They submitted the judgment to a shepherd they encountered tending his flock. Each of the goddesses promised the young man a boon in return for his favour: power, wisdom, or love. The youth—in fact Paris, a Trojan prince who had been raised in the countryside—chose love, and
awarded the apple to Aphrodite. His judgement earned him the ire of both Hera and Athena, but gave him the blessing of Aphrodite who caused Helen, the Queen of Sparta, and most beautiful of all women, to fall in love with him. When Helen left her family to be with Paris, her former husband Menelaus, the Spartan king, called upon all the kings and princes of Greece to wage war upon Troy. Menelaus's brother
Agamemnon, king of
Mycenae, led an expedition of
Achaean troops to Troy and besieged the city for ten years because of Paris's insult. After the deaths of many heroes, including the Achaeans
Achilles and
Ajax, and the Trojans
Hector and Paris, the city fell to the ruse of the
Trojan Horse. The Achaeans slaughtered the Trojans, except for some of the women and children whom they kept or sold as slaves. They also desecrated the temples, thus earning the gods' wrath. Few of the Achaeans returned safely to their homes and many founded colonies in distant shores. The
Romans later traced their origin to Aeneas, Aphrodite's son and one of the Trojans, who was said to have led the surviving Trojans to
Italy. The following summary of the Trojan War follows the order of events as given in Proclus's summary, along with the
Iliad,
Odyssey, and
Aeneid, supplemented with details drawn from other authors.
Origins of the war Plan of Zeus According to Greek mythology,
Zeus had become king of the
gods by overthrowing his father
Cronus; Cronus in turn had overthrown his father
Uranus. Zeus was not faithful to his wife and sister
Hera, and had many affairs from which many children were born. Since Zeus believed that there were too many people populating the earth, he envisioned
Momus or
Themis, who was to use the Trojan War as a means to depopulate the Earth, especially of his demigod descendants. These can be supported by Hesiod's account:
Judgement of Paris .
Gemäldegalerie, Berlin Zeus came to learn from either
Themis or
Prometheus, after
Heracles had released him from the
Caucasus, that, like his father Cronus, he would be overthrown by one of his sons. Another prophecy stated that a son of the sea-nymph Thetis, with whom Zeus fell in love after gazing upon her in the oceans off the Greek coast, would become greater than his father. For one or both of these reasons, either upon Zeus's orders or because she wished to please Hera, who had raised her, Thetis was betrothed to an elderly human king, Peleus, son of
Aeacus. All of the gods were invited to Peleus and Thetis's wedding and brought many gifts, except Eris (the goddess of discord), who was stopped at the door by
Hermes, on Zeus's order. Insulted, she threw from the door a gift of her own: a golden apple () on which was inscribed the word ("To the fairest"). The apple was claimed by Hera, Athena, and Aphrodite. They quarrelled bitterly over it, and none of the other gods would venture an opinion favouring one, for fear of earning the enmity of the other two. Eventually, Zeus ordered Hermes to lead the three goddesses to Paris, a prince of Troy, who, unaware of his ancestry, was being raised as a shepherd on
Mount Ida, because of a prophecy that he would be the downfall of Troy. After bathing in the spring of Ida, the goddesses appeared to him naked, either for the sake of winning or at Paris's request. Paris was unable to decide among them, so the goddesses resorted to bribes. Athena offered Paris wisdom, skill in battle, and the abilities of the greatest warriors; Hera offered him political power and control of all of
Asia; and Aphrodite offered him the love of the most beautiful woman in the world, Helen of Sparta. Paris awarded the apple to Aphrodite, and, after several adventures, returned to Troy, where he was recognised by his royal family.
hydria, 575–550 BC) Peleus and Thetis bore a son, whom they named Achilles. It was foretold that he would either die of old age after an uneventful life, or die young in a battlefield and gain immortality through poetry. Furthermore, when Achilles was nine years old,
Calchas had prophesied that Troy could not again fall without his help. A number of sources credit Thetis with attempting to make Achilles immortal when he was an infant. Some of these state that she held him over fire every night to burn away his mortal parts and rubbed him with
ambrosia during the day, but Peleus discovered her actions and stopped her. According to some versions of this story, Thetis had already killed several sons in this manner, and Peleus's action therefore saved his son's life. Other sources state that Thetis bathed Achilles in the
Styx, the river that runs to the
underworld, making him invulnerable wherever he was touched by the water. Because she had held him by the heel, it was not entirely immersed during the bathing and thus the heel remained mortal and vulnerable to injury (hence the expression "
Achilles' heel" for an isolated weakness). He grew up to be the greatest of all mortal warriors. After Calchas's prophecy, Thetis hid Achilles in
Skyros at the court of King
Lycomedes, where he was disguised as a girl. At a crucial point in the war, she assists her son by providing weapons divinely forged by
Hephaestus (see
below).
Elopement of Paris and Helen The most beautiful woman in the world was Helen, one of the daughters of
Tyndareus, King of Sparta. Her mother was
Leda, who had been either raped or seduced by Zeus in the form of a swan. Accounts differ over which of Leda's four children, two pairs of twins, were fathered by Zeus and which by Tyndareus. However, Helen is usually credited as Zeus's daughter, and sometimes
Nemesis is credited as her mother. Helen had
scores of suitors, and her father was unwilling to choose one for fear the others would retaliate violently. Finally, one of the suitors, Odysseus of Ithaca, proposed a plan to solve the dilemma. In exchange for Tyndareus's support of his own suit towards
Penelope, he suggested that Tyndareus require all of Helen's suitors to promise that they would defend the marriage of Helen, regardless of whom he chose. The suitors duly swore the required oath on the severed pieces of a horse, although not without a certain amount of grumbling. Tyndareus chose Menelaus. Menelaus was a political choice on her father's part. He had wealth and power. He had humbly not petitioned for her himself, but instead sent his brother Agamemnon on his behalf. He had promised Aphrodite a
hecatomb, a sacrifice of 100 oxen, if he won Helen, but forgot about it and earned her wrath. Menelaus inherited Tyndareus's throne of Sparta with Helen as his queen when her brothers,
Castor and Pollux, became gods, and when Agamemnon married Helen's sister
Clytemnestra and took back the throne of Mycenae. Paris, under the guise of a supposed diplomatic mission, went to Sparta to get Helen and bring her back to Troy. Menelaus had left for
Crete to bury his uncle, Crateus. In the meantime, Helen fell in love with Paris and decided to elope with him. According to some accounts Hera, still resentful over the judgement of Paris, sent a storm. The storm caused the lovers to stray into Phoenicia and Cyprus, before they were able to resume their course and arrived to Troy, The myth of Helen being switched is attributed to the Sicilian poet
Stesichorus, while for Homer the Helen in Troy was one and the same. The ship then landed in
Sidon. Paris, fearful of getting caught, spent some time there and then sailed to Troy. Paris's abduction of Helen had several precedents.
Io was taken from Mycenae,
Europa was taken from
Phoenicia,
Jason took
Medea from
Colchis, and the Trojan princess
Hesione had been taken by Heracles, who gave her to
Telamon of
Salamis. According to
Herodotus, Paris was emboldened by these examples to steal himself a wife from Greece, and expected no retribution, since there had been none in the other cases.
Gathering of Achaean forces and the first expedition According to Homer, Menelaus and his ally, Odysseus, travelled to Troy, where they unsuccessfully sought to recover Helen by diplomatic means. Menelaus then asked Agamemnon to help him enforce the oath of Helen's suitors, which was to defend her marriage, regardless of which suitor was chosen. Agamemnon agreed, and sent emissaries to all the Achaean kings and princes to call them to observe their oath and retrieve Helen.
Odysseus and Achilles from
La Olmeda, Spain, fourth–fifth centuries AD Since Menelaus's wedding, Odysseus had married Penelope and fathered a son,
Telemachus. In order to avoid the war, he feigned madness and sowed his fields with salt.
Palamedes outwitted him by placing Telemachus, then an infant, in front of the plough's path. Odysseus turned aside, unwilling to kill his son, so revealing his sanity and forcing him to join the war. According to Homer, however, Odysseus supported the military adventure from the beginning, and travelled the region with
Pylos's king,
Nestor, to recruit forces. At Skyros, Achilles had
an affair with the king's daughter
Deidamia, resulting in a child,
Neoptolemus. Odysseus, Telamonian Ajax, and Achilles's tutor
Phoenix went to retrieve Achilles. Achilles's mother disguised him as a woman so that he would not have to go to war, but, according to one story, they blew a horn, and Achilles revealed himself by seizing a spear to fight intruders, rather than fleeing.
Pausanias said that, according to Homer, Achilles did not hide in Skyros, but rather conquered the island, as part of the Trojan War.
First gathering at Aulis The Achaean forces first gathered at
Aulis. All the suitors sent their forces except King
Cinyras of Cyprus. Though he sent breastplates to Agamemnon and promised to send 50 ships, he sent only one real ship, led by the son of Mygdalion, and 49 ships made of clay.
Idomeneus was willing to lead the Cretan contingent in Mycenae's war against Troy, but only as a co-commander, which he was granted. The last commander to arrive was
Achilles, who was then 15 years old. Following a sacrifice to
Apollo, a snake slithered from the altar to a sparrow's nest in a plane tree nearby. It ate the mother and her nine chicks, then was turned to stone. Calchas interpreted this as a sign that Troy would fall in the tenth year of the war.
Telephus When the Achaeans left for the war, they did not know the way, and accidentally landed in
Mysia, ruled by King
Telephus, son of Heracles, who had led a contingent of
Arcadians to settle there. In the battle, Achilles wounded Telephus, who had killed
Thersander. Because the wound would not heal, Telephus asked an oracle, "What will happen to the wound?" The oracle responded, "he that wounded shall heal". The Achaean fleet then set sail and was scattered by a storm. Achilles landed in Skyros and married Deidamia. A new gathering was set again in Aulis. or kidnapped
Orestes and held him for ransom, demanding the wound be healed. Achilles refused, claiming to have no medical knowledge. Odysseus reasoned that the spear that had inflicted the wound must be able to heal it. Pieces of the spear were scraped off onto the wound, and Telephus was healed. Telephus then showed the Achaeans the route to Troy.
Second gathering (Troas) in modern-day Turkey Eight years after the storm had scattered them, the fleet of more than a thousand ships was gathered again. When they had all reached Aulis, the winds ceased. The prophet Calchas stated that the goddess
Artemis was punishing Agamemnon for killing either a sacred deer or a deer in a sacred grove, and boasting that he was a better hunter than she. or of Helen and
Theseus entrusted to Clytemnestra when Helen married Menelaus. Agamemnon refused, and the other commanders threatened to make Palamedes commander of the expedition. According to some versions, Agamemnon relented and performed the sacrifice, but others claim that he sacrificed a deer in her place, or that at the last moment, Artemis took pity on the girl, and took her to be a maiden in one of her temples, substituting a lamb. The Achaean forces are described in detail in the
Catalogue of Ships, in the second book of the
Iliad. They consisted of 28 contingents from mainland Greece, the
Peloponnese, the
Dodecanese islands, Crete, and Ithaca, comprising
1186 pentekonters, ships with 50 rowers. Thucydides says that according to tradition there were about 1200 ships, and that the
Boeotian ships had 120 men, while
Philoctetes's ships only had the fifty rowers, these probably being maximum and minimum. These numbers would mean a total force of 70,000 to 130,000 men. Another catalogue of ships is given by the
Bibliotheca that differs somewhat but agrees in numbers. Some scholars have claimed that Homer's catalogue is an original Bronze Age document, possibly the Achaean commander's order of operations. Others believe it was a fabrication of Homer. The second book of the
Iliad also lists the
Trojan allies, consisting of the Trojans themselves, led by Hector, and various allies listed as
Dardanians led by Aeneas,
Zeleians,
Adrasteians,
Percotians,
Pelasgians,
Thracians,
Ciconian spearmen,
Paionian archers,
Halizones, Mysians,
Phrygians,
Maeonians,
Miletians,
Lycians led by
Sarpedon and
Carians. Nothing is said of the
Trojan language; the Carians are specifically said to be
barbarian-speaking, and the allied contingents are said to have spoken many languages, requiring orders to be translated by their individual commanders. The Trojans and Achaeans in the
Iliad share the same religion, same culture and the enemy heroes speak to each other in the same language, though this could be dramatic effect.
Nine years of war Philoctetes lekythos, 420 BC) Philoctetes was Heracles's friend, and because he lit Heracles's funeral pyre when no one else would, he received Heracles's bow and arrows. He sailed with seven ships full of men to the Trojan War, where he was planning on fighting for the Achaeans. They stopped either at
Chryse Island for supplies, or in
Tenedos, along with the rest of the fleet. Then Philoctetes was bitten by a snake. The wound festered and had a foul smell; on Odysseus's advice, the
Atreidae ordered Philoctetes to stay on
Lemnos. From Tenedos, Agamemnon sent an embassy to the
Priam king of Troy composed of Menelaus and Odysseus, asking for Helen's return. The embassy was refused. Philoctetes stayed on Lemnos for ten years, which was a deserted island according to Sophocles's tragedy
Philoctetes, but according to earlier tradition was populated by
Minyans.
Arrival Calchas had prophesied that the first Achaean to walk on land after stepping off a ship would be the first to die. Thus even the leading Greeks hesitated to land. Finally,
Protesilaus, leader of the
Phylaceans, landed first. Odysseus had tricked him, in throwing his own shield down to land on, so that while he was first to leap off his ship, he was not the first to land on Trojan soil. Hector killed Protesilaus in single combat, though the Trojans conceded the beach. In the second wave of attacks, Achilles killed
Cycnus, son of
Poseidon. The Trojans then fled to the safety of the walls of their city. The walls served as sturdy fortifications for defence against the Greeks. The build of the walls was so impressive that legend held that they had been built by Poseidon and Apollo during a year of forced service to Trojan King
Laomedon. Protesilaus had killed many Trojans but was killed by Hector in most versions of the story, though others list Aeneas,
Achates, or Ephorbus as his slayer. The Achaeans buried him as a god on the Thracian peninsula, across the Troäd. After Protesilaus's death, his brother,
Podarces, took command of his troops.
Achilles's campaigns to Agamemnon, from the
House of the Tragic Poet in
Pompeii, fresco, first century AD, now in the
Naples National Archaeological Museum The Achaeans besieged Troy for nine years. This part of the war is the least developed among surviving sources, which prefer to talk about events in the last year of the war. After the initial landing the army was gathered in its entirety again only in the tenth year. Thucydides deduces that this was due to lack of money. They raided the Trojan allies and spent time farming the Thracian peninsula. Troy was never completely besieged, thus it maintained communications with the interior of Asia Minor. Reinforcements continued to come until the very end. The Achaeans controlled only the entrance to the Dardanelles, and Troy and her allies controlled the shortest point at
Abydos and
Sestos and communicated with allies in Europe. Achilles and Ajax were the most active of the Achaeans, leading separate armies to raid lands of Trojan allies. According to Homer, Achilles conquered 11 cities and 12 islands. According to Apollodorus, he raided the land of Aeneas in the Troäd region and stole his cattle. He also captured Lyrnassus,
Pedasus, and many of the neighbouring cities, and killed
Troilus; it was said that if he reached 20 years of age, Troy would not fall. According to Apollodorus, Kakrides comments that the list is wrong in that it extends too far into the south. Other sources talk of Achilles taking Pedasus, Monenia, and
Methymna (in
Lesbos) with the help of
Pisidice. Among the loot from these cities was Briseis, from Lyrnessus, who was awarded to him, and
Chryseis, from Hypoplacian Thebes, who was awarded to Agamemnon. while he was cutting branches in his father's orchards.
Patroclus sold him as a slave in Lemnos,
Ajax and a game of petteia Ajax, son of Telamon, laid waste the Thracian peninsula of which
Polymestor, a son-in-law of Priam, was king. Polymestor surrendered
Polydorus, one of Priam's children, of whom he had custody. He then attacked the town of the
Phrygian king Teleutas, killed him in single combat and carried off his daughter
Tecmessa. Ajax also hunted the Trojan flocks, both on Mount Ida and in the countryside. Numerous paintings on pottery have suggested a tale not mentioned in the literary traditions. At some point in the war Achilles and Ajax were playing a board game (). They were absorbed in the game and oblivious to the surrounding battle. The Trojans attacked and reached the heroes, who were only saved by an intervention of Athena.
Death of Palamedes Odysseus was sent to Thrace to return with grain, but came back empty-handed. When scorned by Palamedes, Odysseus challenged him to do better. Palamedes set out and returned with a shipload of grain. Odysseus had never forgiven Palamedes for threatening the life of his son. In revenge, Odysseus conceived a plot where an incriminating letter was forged, from Priam to Palamedes, and gold was planted in Palamedes's quarters. The letter and gold were "discovered", and Agamemnon had Palamedes stoned to death for treason. However, Pausanias, quoting the
Cypria, says that Odysseus and
Diomedes drowned Palamedes, while he was fishing, and
Dictys says that Odysseus and Diomedes lured Palamedes into a well, which they said contained gold, then stoned him to death. Palamedes's father
Nauplius sailed to the Troäd and asked for justice, but was refused. In revenge, Nauplius travelled among the Achaean kingdoms and told the wives of the kings that they were bringing Trojan concubines to dethrone them. Many of the Greek wives were persuaded to betray their husbands, most significantly Agamemnon's wife, Clytemnestra, who was seduced by
Aegisthus, son of
Thyestes.
Mutiny Near the end of the ninth year since the landing, the Achaean army, tired from the fighting and from the lack of supplies, mutinied against their leaders and demanded to return to their homes. According to the
Cypria, Achilles forced the army to stay.
Iliad pleading with
Agamemnon for his daughter (360–350 BC)
Chryses, a priest of Apollo and father of
Chryseis, came to Agamemnon to ask for the return of his daughter. Agamemnon refused, and insulted Chryses, who prayed to Apollo to avenge his ill-treatment. Enraged, Apollo afflicted the Achaean army with plague. Agamemnon was forced to return Chryseis to end the plague, and took Achilles's concubine Briseis as his own. Enraged at the dishonour Agamemnon had inflicted upon him, Achilles decided he would no longer fight. He asked his mother, Thetis, to intercede with Zeus, who agreed to give the Trojans success in the absence of Achilles, the best warrior of the Achaeans. After the withdrawal of Achilles, the Achaeans were initially successful. Both armies gathered in full for the first time since the landing. Menelaus and Paris fought a duel, which ended when Aphrodite snatched the beaten Paris from the field. With the truce broken, the armies began fighting again. Diomedes won great renown amongst the Achaeans, killing the Trojan hero
Pandaros and nearly killing Aeneas, who was only saved by his mother, Aphrodite. With the assistance of Athena, Diomedes then wounded the gods Aphrodite and
Ares. During the next days, however, the Trojans drove the Achaeans back to their camp and were stopped at the Achaean wall by Poseidon. The next day, though, with Zeus's help, the Trojans broke into the Achaean camp and were on the verge of setting fire to the Achaean ships. An earlier appeal to Achilles to return was rejected, but after Hector burned Protesilaus's ship, he allowed his companion Patroclus to go into battle wearing Achilles's armour and lead his army. Patroclus drove the Trojans all the way back to the walls of Troy, and was only prevented from storming the city by the intervention of Apollo. Patroclus was then killed by Hector, who took Achilles's armour from the body of Patroclus. Achilles, maddened with grief over the death of Patroclus, swore to kill Hector in revenge. The exact nature of Achilles's relationship to Patroclus is the subject of some debate. Although certainly very close, Achilles and Patroclus are never explicitly cast as lovers by Homer, but they were depicted as such in the archaic and classical periods of Greek literature, particularly in the works of
Aeschylus,
Aeschines and
Plato. He was reconciled with Agamemnon and received Briseis back, untouched by Agamemnon. He received a new set of arms, forged by the god Hephaestus, and returned to the battlefield. He slaughtered many Trojans, and nearly killed Aeneas, who was saved by Poseidon. Achilles fought with the river god
Scamander, and a battle of the gods followed. The Trojan army returned to the city, except for Hector, who remained outside the walls because he was tricked by Athena. Achilles killed Hector, and afterwards he dragged Hector's body from his chariot and refused to return the body to the Trojans for burial. The body nevertheless remained unscathed as it was preserved from all injury by Apollo and Aphrodite. The Achaeans then conducted funeral games for Patroclus. Afterwards, Priam came to Achilles's tent, guided by Hermes, and asked Achilles to return Hector's body. The armies made a temporary truce to allow the burial of the dead. The
Iliad ends with the funeral of Hector.
After the Iliad Penthesilea and the death of Achilles Shortly after the burial of Hector,
Penthesilea, queen of the
Amazons, arrived with her warriors. Penthesilea, daughter of
Otrera and Ares, had accidentally killed her sister
Hippolyte. She was purified from this action by Priam, and in exchange she fought for him and killed many, including
Machaon (according to Pausanias, Machaon was killed by
Eurypylus), and according to one version, Achilles himself, who was resurrected at the request of Thetis. In another version, Penthesilia was killed by Achilles, who would later mourn her after her death.
Thersites, a simple soldier and the ugliest Achaean, taunted Achilles over his grief Achilles slew Thersites, and after a dispute sailed to Lesbos, where he was purified for his murder by Odysseus after sacrificing to Apollo, Artemis, and Leto. came with his host to help his stepbrother Priam. He did not come directly from Ethiopia, but either from
Susa in Persia, conquering all the peoples in between, or from the Caucasus, leading an army of Ethiopians and
Indians. Like Achilles, he wore armour made by Hephaestus. In the ensuing battle, Memnon killed
Antilochus, who took one of Memnon's blows to save his father Nestor. Achilles and Memnon then fought. Zeus weighed the fate of the two heroes; the weight containing that of Memnon sank, and he was slain by Achilles. Achilles chased the Trojans to their city, which he entered. The gods, seeing that he had killed too many of their children, decided that it was his time to die. He was killed after Paris shot a poisoned arrow that was guided by Apollo. In another version he was killed by a knife to the back (or
heel) by Paris, while marrying
Polyxena, daughter of Priam, in the temple of Thymbraean Apollo, the site where he had earlier killed Troilus. Both versions conspicuously deny the killer any sort of valour, saying Achilles remained undefeated on the battlefield. His bones were mingled with those of Patroclus, and funeral games were held. Like Ajax, Achilles is represented as living after his death in the island of
Leuke, at the mouth of the
Danube River.
Judgment of Arms by
Exekias, now on display at the A great battle raged around the dead Achilles. Ajax held back the Trojans, while Odysseus carried the body away. When Achilles's armour was offered to the smartest warrior, the two that had saved his body came forward as competitors. Agamemnon, unwilling to undertake the invidious duty of deciding between the two competitors, referred the dispute to the decision of the Trojan prisoners, inquiring of them which of the two heroes had done most harm to the Trojans. Alternatively, the Trojans and Pallas Athena were the judges in that, following Nestor's advice, spies were sent to the walls to overhear what was said. A girl said that Ajax was braver: According to
Pindar, the decision was made by secret ballot among the Achaeans. In all story versions, the arms were awarded to Odysseus. Driven mad with grief, Ajax desired to kill his comrades, but Athena caused him to mistake some cattle and their herdsmen for the Achaean warriors. In his frenzy he scourged two rams, believing them to be Agamemnon and Menelaus. In the morning, he came to his senses and killed himself by jumping on the sword that had been given to him by Hector, so that it pierced his armpit, his only vulnerable part. According to an older tradition, he was killed by the Trojans who, seeing he was invulnerable, attacked him with clay until he was covered by it and could no longer move, thus dying of starvation.
Prophecies , from Pompeii, Italy, – first century AD After the tenth year, it was prophesied that Troy could not fall without Heracles's bow, which was with Philoctetes in Lemnos. Odysseus and Diomedes retrieved Philoctetes, whose wound had healed. Philoctetes then shot and killed Paris. According to Apollodorus, Paris's brothers Helenus and
Deiphobus vied over the hand of Helen. Deiphobus prevailed, and Helenus abandoned Troy for Mount Ida. Calchas said that Helenus knew the prophecies concerning the fall of Troy, so Odysseus waylaid Helenus. Under coercion, Helenus told the Achaeans that they would win if they retrieved
Pelops's bones, persuaded Achilles's son Neoptolemus to fight for them, and stole the Trojan
Palladium. The Greeks retrieved Pelops's bones, and sent Odysseus to retrieve Neoptolemus, who was hiding from the war in King Lycomedes's court in Skyros. Odysseus gave him his father's arms. Eurypylus, son of Telephus, leading, according to Homer, a large force of
Kêteioi, or
Hittites or Mysians according to Apollodorus, arrived to aid the Trojans. Eurypylus killed Machaon but was slain by Neoptolemus. Disguised as a beggar, Odysseus went to spy inside Troy, but was recognised by Helen. Homesick, Helen plotted with Odysseus. Later, with Helen's help, Odysseus and Diomedes stole the Palladium.
Trojan Horse The end of the war came with one final plan. Odysseus devised a new ruse
a giant hollow wooden horse, an animal that was sacred to the Trojans. It was built by
Epeius and guided by Athena, from the wood of a
cornel tree grove sacred to Apollo, with the inscription: "The Greeks dedicate this thank-offering to Athena for their return home". The hollow horse was filled with soldiers led by Odysseus. The rest of the army burned the camp and sailed for
Tenedos. When the Trojans discovered that the Greeks were gone, believing the war was over, they "joyfully dragged the horse inside the city", while they debated what to do with it. Some thought they ought to hurl it down from the rocks, others thought they should burn it, while others said they ought to dedicate it to Athena. Both Cassandra and
Laocoön warned against keeping the horse. While Cassandra had been given the gift of prophecy by Apollo, she was also cursed by Apollo never to be believed. Serpents then came out of the sea and devoured either Laocoön and one of his two sons, or only his sons, a portent which so alarmed the followers of Aeneas that they withdrew to Ida. and the soldiers from inside the horse emerged and killed the guards.
Sack of Troy , son of Achilles, kills King Priam (detail of Attic black-figure
amphora, 520–510 BC) The Achaeans entered the city and killed the sleeping population. A great massacre followed which continued into the day. The Trojans, fuelled with desperation, fought back fiercely, despite being disorganised and leaderless. With the fighting at its height, some donned fallen enemies' attire and launched surprise counterattacks in the chaotic street fighting. Other defenders hurled down roof tiles and anything else heavy down on the rampaging attackers. The outlook was grim though, and eventually the remaining defenders were destroyed along with the whole city. Neoptolemus killed Priam, who had taken refuge at the altar of Zeus of the Courtyard. Menelaus killed Deiphobus, Helen's husband after Paris's death, and also intended to kill Helen, but, overcome by her beauty, threw down his sword and took her to the ships. , Pompeii)
Ajax the Lesser raped Cassandra on Athena's altar while she was clinging to her statue. Because of Ajax's impiety, the Acheaens, urged by Odysseus, wanted to stone him to death, but he fled to Athena's altar, and was spared.
Antenor, who had given hospitality to Menelaus and Odysseus when they asked for the return of Helen, and who had advocated so, was spared, along with his family. Aeneas took his father on his back and fled, and, according to Apollodorus, was allowed to go because of his piety. The Achaeans threw Hector's infant son
Astyanax down from the walls of Troy, either out of cruelty and hate or to end the royal line, and the possibility of a son's revenge. They (by usual tradition Neoptolemus) also sacrificed the Trojan princess Polyxena on the grave of Achilles.
Aethra, Theseus's mother and one of Helen's handmaids, was rescued by her grandsons,
Demophon and
Acamas.
Returns (1798–1868) The gods were very angry over the destruction of their temples and other sacrilegious acts by the Achaeans, and decided that most would not return home. A storm fell on the returning fleet off Tenos island. Nauplius, in revenge for the murder of his son Palamedes, set up false lights in
Cape Caphereus (also known today as Cavo D'Oro, in
Euboea) and many were shipwrecked. • Agamemnon had made it back to Argos safely with Cassandra in his possession after some stormy weather. He and Cassandra were slain by
Aegisthus (in the oldest versions of the story) or by Clytemnestra or by both of them.
Electra and Orestes later avenged their father but Orestes was the one who was chased by the
Furies. •
Nestor, who had the best conduct in Troy and did not take part in the looting, was the only hero who had a fast and safe return. Those of his army that survived the war also reached home with him safely but later left and colonised
Metapontium in
Southern Italy. • Ajax the Lesser, who had endured more than the others the wrath of the Gods, never returned. His ship was wrecked by a storm sent by Athena, who borrowed one of Zeus's thunderbolts and tore the ship to pieces. The crew managed to land in a rock but Poseidon struck it and Ajax fell in the sea and drowned. He was buried by Thetis in
Myconos or
Delos. •
Teucer, son of Telamon and half-brother of Ajax, stood trial by his father for his half-brother's death. He was disowned by his father and was not allowed back on Salamis Island. He was at sea near
Phreattys in
Peiraeus. He was acquitted of responsibility but found guilty of negligence because he did not return his dead body or his arms. He left with his army (who took their wives) and founded Salamis in
Cyprus. The Athenians later created a political myth that his son left his kingdom to Theseus's sons (and not to
Megara). • Neoptolemus, following the advice of Helenus, who accompanied him when he travelled over land, was always accompanied by Andromache. He met Odysseus and they buried Achilles's teacher Phoenix on the land of the Ciconians. They then conquered the land of the
Molossians (
Epirus) and Neoptolemus had a child by Andromache,
Molossus, to whom he later gave the throne. Thus the kings of Epirus claimed their lineage from Achilles, and so did
Alexander the Great, whose mother was of that royal house. Alexander the Great and the kings of
Macedon also claimed to be descended from Heracles. Helenus founded a city in Molossia and inhabited it, and Neoptolemus gave him his mother Deidamia as wife. After Peleus died he succeeded
Phthia's throne. He had a feud with Orestes (son of Agamemnon) over Menelaus's daughter
Hermione, and was killed in
Delphi, where he was buried. In Roman myths, the kingdom of Phtia was taken over by Helenus, who married Andromache. They offered hospitality to other Trojan refugees, including Aeneas, who paid a visit there during his wanderings. • Diomedes was first thrown by a storm on the coast of Lycia, where he was to be sacrificed to Ares by king
Lycus, but
Callirrhoe, the king's daughter, took pity upon him, and assisted him in escaping. He then accidentally landed in
Attica, in
Phaleron. The Athenians, unaware that they were allies, attacked them. Many were killed, and Demophon took the Palladium. He finally landed in
Argos, where he found his wife
Aegialeia committing adultery. In disgust, he left for
Aetolia. According to later traditions, he had some adventures and founded
Canusium and
Argyrippa in Southern Italy. • Philoctetes, due to a sedition, was driven from his city and emigrated to Italy, where he founded the cities of
Petilia, Old Crimissa, and Chone, between
Croton and
Thurii. After making war on the Leucanians he founded there a sanctuary of Apollo the Wanderer, to whom also he dedicated his bow. • According to Homer, Idomeneus reached his house safe and sound. Another tradition later formed. After the war, Idomeneus's ship hit a horrible storm. Idomeneus promised Poseidon that he would sacrifice the first living thing he saw when he returned home if Poseidon would save his ship and crew. The first living thing he saw was his son, whom Idomeneus duly sacrificed. The gods were angry at his murder of his own son and they sent a plague to Crete. His people sent him into exile to
Calabria in Italy, and then to Colophon, in Asia Minor, where he died. Among the lesser Achaeans very few reached their homes.
House of Atreus 's
Stories from the Greek Tragedians) According to the
Odyssey, Menelaus's fleet was blown by storms to Crete and Egypt, where they were unable to sail away because the winds were calm. Only five of his ships survived. According to some stories the Helen who was taken by Paris was a fake, and the real Helen was in Egypt, where she was reunited with Menelaus. Proteus also told Menelaus that he was destined for
Elysium (Heaven) after his death. Menelaus returned to Sparta with Helen eight years after he had left Troy. Agamemnon returned home with Cassandra to Argos. His wife Clytemnestra (Helen's sister) was having an affair with Aegisthus, son of Thyestes, Agamemnon's cousin who had conquered Argos before Agamemnon himself retook it. Possibly out of vengeance for the death of Iphigenia, Clytemnestra plotted with her lover to kill Agamemnon. Cassandra foresaw this murder, and warned Agamemnon, but he disregarded her. He was killed, either at a feast or in his bath, according to different versions. Cassandra was also killed. Agamemnon's son Orestes, who had been away, returned and conspired with his sister Electra to avenge their father. He killed Clytemnestra and Aegisthus and succeeded to his father's throne.
Odyssey : the Cyclops' curse delays the homecoming of Odysseus for another ten years Odysseus's ten-year journey home to Ithaca was told in Homer's
Odyssey. Odysseus and his men were blown far off course to lands unknown to the Achaeans; there Odysseus had many adventures, including the famous encounter with the
Cyclops Polyphemus, and an audience with the seer
Teiresias in
Hades. On the island of
Thrinacia, Odysseus's men ate the cattle sacred to the sun-god
Helios. For this sacrilege Odysseus's ships were destroyed, and all his men perished. Odysseus had not eaten the cattle, and was allowed to live; he washed ashore on the island of
Ogygia, and lived there with the nymph
Calypso. After seven years, the gods decided to send Odysseus home; on a small raft, he sailed to
Scheria, the home of the
Phaeacians, who gave him passage to Ithaca. Once in his home land, Odysseus travelled disguised as an old beggar. He was recognised by his dog,
Argos, who died in his lap. He then discovered that his wife, Penelope, had been faithful to him during the 20 years he was absent, despite the countless
suitors that were eating his food and spending his property. With the help of his son Telemachus, Athena, and
Eumaeus, the swineherd, he killed all of them except Medon, who had been polite to Penelope, and
Phemius, a local singer who had only been forced to help the suitors against Penelope. Penelope tested Odysseus with his unstrung
recurve bow to ensure it was him, and he forgave her. The next day the suitors' relatives tried to take revenge on him but they were stopped by Athena.
Telegony The
Telegony picks up where the
Odyssey leaves off, beginning with the burial of the dead suitors, and continues until the death of Odysseus. Some years after Odysseus's return,
Telegonus, the son of Odysseus and
Circe, came to Ithaca and plundered the island. Odysseus, attempting to fight off the attack, was killed by his unrecognised son. After Telegonus realised he had killed his father, he brought the body to his mother Circe, along with Telemachus and Penelope. Circe made them immortal; then Telegonus married Penelope and Telemachus married Circe.
Aeneid The journey of the Trojan survivor Aeneas and his resettling of Trojan refugees in Italy are the subject of the Latin epic poem the
Aeneid by Virgil. Writing during the time of
Augustus, Virgil has his hero give a first-person account of the fall of Troy in the second of the
Aeneids twelve books; the Trojan Horse, which does not appear in the
Iliad, became legendary from Virgil's account. Aeneas leads a group of survivors away from the city, among them his son
Ascanius (also known as Iulus), his trumpeter
Misenus, father
Anchises, the healer
Iapyx, his faithful sidekick Achates, and
Mimas as a guide. His wife
Creusa is killed during the sack of the city. Aeneas also carries the
Lares and
Penates of Troy, which the historical Romans claimed to preserve as guarantees of Rome's own security. The Trojan survivors escape with a number of ships, seeking to establish a new homeland. They land in several nearby countries that prove inhospitable, and are finally told by an oracle that they must return to the land of their forebears. They first try to establish themselves in Crete, where
Dardanus had once settled, but find it ravaged by the same plague that had driven Idomeneus away. They find the colony led by Helenus and Andromache, but decline to remain. After seven years they arrive in
Carthage, where Aeneas has an affair with
Queen Dido (since according to tradition Carthage was founded in 814 BC, the arrival of Trojan refugees a few hundred years earlier exposes chronological difficulties within the mythic tradition). Eventually the gods order Aeneas to continue his journey, and he and his people arrive at the mouth of the
Tiber River in Italy. Dido commits suicide, and Aeneas's betrayal of her was regarded as an element in the long enmity between Rome and Carthage that expressed itself in the
Punic Wars and led to Roman hegemony. At
Cumae, the
Sibyl leads Aeneas on an archetypal
descent to the underworld, where the shade of his dead father serves as a guide; this book of the
Aeneid directly influenced
Dante, who has Virgil act as his narrator's guide. Aeneas is given a vision of the future majesty of Rome, which it was his duty to found, and returns to the world of the living. He negotiates a settlement with the local king,
Latinus, and was wed to his daughter,
Lavinia. This triggered a war with other local tribes, which culminated in the founding of the settlement of
Alba Longa, ruled by Aeneas and Lavinia's son
Silvius.
Roman myth attempted to reconcile two different
founding myths: three hundred years later, in the more famous tradition,
Romulus founded Rome after murdering his brother
Remus. The Trojan origins of Rome became particularly important in the propaganda of
Julius Caesar, whose family claimed descent from
Venus through Aeneas's son Iulus (hence the Latin name
Iulius), and during the
reign of Augustus (see for instance the and the "
Troy Game" presented frequently by the
Julio-Claudian dynasty). ==Dates of the Trojan War==