Aphalaridae

Aphalaridae is a morphologically various family. Adults are typically between 1-5mm in length, and come in a variety of colors, often shades of green and brown. The main synapomorphy for the family is in the nymphal stages, where the tarsal arolium (a pad-esque structure on the tarsus) is reduced to completely absent. The adult stages are fairly unique, differing from other aphalarids, making the taxonomy even more difficult to resolve. Some key features to identifying the genera and subfamilies are the presence, or lack of, two genal cones on the front of the head. When these cones are present, their length can vary from short and rounded to long and pointed. On the wing's leading edge, a pterostigma (a thickened cell) may be present or absent. Generally, the hind wings of aphalarids are enlarged for jumping. The metatibia has a number of thick, black-tipped abical spurs. In many species, these are arranged in an open crown of sclerotised apical spurs. == Ecology and host plants ==

The life cycle of Aphalarids typically consists of an egg stage, followed by five nymphal instars, and finally the winged adult. Aphalaridae are herbivores that feed on the phloem (sap) of plants. Most species are highly host-specific. The aster family, Asteraceae, is host to many species in the genus Craspedolepta. Polygonaceae (the knotweed family) is host to many species in the genus Aphalara. Spondyliaspidinae, the subfamily, is known primarily for their association with Eucalyptus. Nymphs in this family produce a protective covering called a "lerp", which is why they are commonly referred to as "lerp insects". The genus Agonoscena includes the common pistachio psyllid (Agonoscena pistaciae), which is a significant pest in the pistachio industry. == Distribution and habitat ==

Aphalarids can be found on all continents except Antarctica. The habitat of Aphalaridae species depends on the presence of its host plant. Because their hosts grow in a range of environments, Aphalaridae species can be found in habitats ranging from arid shrublands to temperate forests. == Economic importance ==

While most species are relatively inconspicuous, some are considered major pests. Pests in this group include the subfamily Spondyliaspidinae, which are known as "lerp insects" in Australia, and the pistachio psyllid (Agonoscena pistaciae), which is an agricultural pest. == Taxonomy ==

This family was previously thought to contain five subfamilies, but in the 2021 review by Burckhardt, et al., the following seven subfamilies were identified: • Aphalarinae • Cecidopsyllinae • Cecidopsylla • Microphyllurinae • Microphyllurus • Phacopteroninae • Rhinocolinae • Spondyliaspidinae • Togepsyllinae While Burckhardt et al. (2021) assign these seven subfamilies to Aphalaridae, the phylogenetic relationships between the subfamilies are not fully resolved and molecular analyses did not include representatives from Cecidopsyllinae or Togepsyllinae. A 2024 molecular study on Bulgarian aphalarids recovered these relationships: }} Overview of genera BioLib includes: • Agelaeopsylla Taylor, 1990 • Agonoscena Enderlein, 1914 • Ameroscena Burckhardt & Lauterer, 1989 • Anoeconeossa Taylor, 1987 • Anomalopsylla Tuthill, 1952 • Aphalara Förster, 1848 • Apsylla Crawford, 1912 • Australopsylla Tuthill & Taylor, 1955 • Blastopsylla Taylor, 1985 • Blepharocosta Taylor, 1992 • Boreioglycaspis Moore, 1964 • Brachystetha Loginova, 1964 • Caillardia Bergevin, 1931 • Cardiaspina Crawford, 1911 • Cerationotum Burckhardt & Lauterer, 1989 • Colposcenia Enderlein, 1929 • Craspedolepta Enderlein, 1921 • Crastina Loginova, 1964 • Creiis Scott, 1882 • Crucianus Burckhardt & Lauterer, 1989 • Cryptoneossa Taylor, 1990 • Ctenarytaina Ferris & Klyver, 1932 • Dasypsylla Froggatt, 1900 • Epheloscyta Loginova, 1976 • Eriopsylla Froggatt, 1901 • Eucalyptolyma Froggatt, 1901 • Eumetoecus Loginova, 1961 • Eurhinocola Crawford, 1912 • Eurotica Loginova, 1962 • Glycaspis Taylor, 1960 • Gyropsylla Brèthes, 1921 • Hodkinsonia Burckhardt, Esperito-Santo, Fernandes & Malenovský, 2004 • Hyalinaspis Taylor, 1960 • Kenmooreana Taylor, 1984 • Lanthanaphalara Tuthill, 1959 • Lasiopsylla Froggatt, 1900 • Leptospermonastes Taylor, 1987 • Leurolophus Tuthill, 1942 • Limataphalara Hodkinson, 1992 • Lisronia Loginova, 1976 • Megagonoscena Burckhardt & Lauterer, 1989 • Moraniella Loginova, 1972 • Neaphalara Brown & Hodkinson, 1988 • Notophyllura Hodkinson, 1986 • Phellopsylla Taylor, 1960 • Phyllolyma Scott, 1882 • Platyobria Taylor, 1987 • Rhinocola Förster, 1848 • Rhodochlanis Loginova, 1964 • Rhombaphalara Loginova, 1964 • Rhusaphalara Park & Lee, 1982 • Spondyliaspis Signoret, 1879 • Syncarpiolyma Froggatt, 1901 • Syncoptozus Enderlein, 1918 • Tainarys Brèthes, 1920 • Togepsylla Kuwayama, 1931 • Xenaphalara Loginova, 1961 ; extinct genera • Eogyropsylla Klimaszewski, 1993 † • Necropsylla Scudder, 1890 † • Paleopsylloides Bekker-Migdisova, 1985 † • Proeurotica Bekker-Migdisova, 1985 † • Protoscena Klimaszewski, 1997 † == References ==