Boeotia had significant political importance, owing to its position on the north shore of the
Gulf of Corinth, the strategic strength of its frontiers, and the ease of communication within its extensive area. On the other hand, the lack of good harbours hindered its maritime development. The importance of the legendary
Minyae has been confirmed by archaeological remains (notably the "Treasury of Minyas"). The Boeotian population entered the land from the north possibly before the
Dorian invasion. With the exception of the Minyae, the original peoples were soon absorbed by these immigrants, and the Boeotians henceforth appear as a homogeneous nation.
Aeolic Greek was spoken in Boeotia. In historical times, the leading city of Boeotia was Thebes, whose central position and military strength made it a suitable capital;
Emigration of the Boeotians According to myth, the Boeotians () lived in
Thessaly, especially in the area around
Arne, though some may have gone to the
Pagasitic Gulf before migrating to the land later termed Boeotia. The location of
Arne is unknown, though sometimes it is equated with
Cierium in Central
Thessaly. The presence in Classical times in Boeotia of cults and place-names of Thessalian origin, such as
Itonia and Itonian Athena,
Homole and Homoloian Zeus,
Alalcomenae,
Corseia and
Pharae, confirm for most scholars the merits of these traditions. It is, therefore, generally believed that the Boeotians originated in Thessaly and lived there as a distinct
ethnos, in Phthiotis or in Thessaliotis, before they migrated to Boeotia, taking elements with them from other parts of
Thessaly. Boeotians were expelled from
Thessaly after the
Trojan war although there are three traditions which disagree on how expulsion played out. One tradition says that the Boiotoi were expelled by the
Thessalians who were led by
Thessalus, son of Aiatus, son of
Pheidippus, son of another Thessalus.
Pheidippus appears in the
Catalogue of ships as one of the commanders of the force from Cos and Carpathus. He was thought to have been driven to
Epirus after the war and to have settled at
Ephyra in the
Thesprotid. Hence the Boiotoi were expelled two generations after the Trojan War.
Hellanicus is probably the source of this tradition, and the source of
Thucydides' "sixtieth year", that is, two generations of thirty years. A second tradition puts the expulsion of the Boiotoi in the reign of Aiatus, one generation after the
War. To this should also belong the story in
Plutarch, which tells how
Opheltas king of the Boiotoi took
Chaeronea "by force from the barbarians". Opheltas is the son of
Peneleus, one of the leaders of the Boeotian contingent in the
Catalogue, and living one generation after the war. It is not until the reign of
Damasichthon, son of
Opheltas, that control of Thebes was gained by the Boiotoi. Hence in this tradition one generation after the war, the Boiotoi were expelled and western Boeotia was invaded; two generations after the war, Thebes was won. A third tradition combines the other two: the two generations until the expulsion from
Thessaly after the War and the two generations until Thebes is gained give the four generations cited by
Hieronymus in his tale of the
Cadmean return to Thebes after the war. The entry-point to Boeotia by Boeotians seems to be put in the same general area by all traditions. The second tradition gives
Chaeronea as the first place attacked, while the first says that
Coronea and
Orchomenus were captured virtually simultaneously and then the sanctuary of Itonian Athena was founded. It is clear that both traditions envisaged the Boiotoi as following a well-known invasion route from
Thessaly, the one via
Thermopylae and
Hyampolis to
Chaeronea, where the invaders would be poised to attack both
Orchomenus and
Coronea. Having gained control of
Chaeronea,
Orchomenus and
Coronea, and their territories, the Boiotoi seem to have paused to digest western Boeotia; the generation or two before
Thebes was captured marks this pause in all traditions. The siting close to Coronea of the sanctuary of Itonian Athena, and the celebration of the
Pamboeotia there, together with the renaming of rivers and other toponyms, and the sanctity attached to the neighbouring settlement of
Alalcomenae, all strengthen the belief that this western section was the area where the first Boeotian settlement took place, and where Boeotian institutions were first established in the new homeland. The advance eastward eventually proceeded both to the north and to the south of
Copais lake. On the north side it ultimately reached
Anthedon, a town credited with once having been occupied by the
Thracians. On the south side it came as far as
Thebes and
Thespiae. In Thebes, according to one version,
Damasichthon took the rule from
Autesion, son of
Tisamenus, son of
Thersander, another stemma that puts the Boeotians in
Thebes two generations after the
Trojan War. The tradition intimates that there was a peaceful take-over, with
Autesion joining the
Dorians. There must have been another pause for some time. The next advance, into the
Asopus valley, was led by
Xanthus, son of
Ptolemy, son of
Damasichthon, that is, two generations after the gaining of
Thebes. The Thebans remembered, according to Thucydides, that the
Asopus valley and
Plataea were reduced later than the rest of Boeotia and were occupied in accordance with an agreed plan. The Boeotian advance was apparently stalled on what became the Athenian-Boeotian frontier, by the efforts of local forces, if the legend of
Xanthus and
Melanthus has any historical significance. In any event the death of
Xanthus symbolised traditionally the completion of the conquest of Boeotia under the kings and the consequent immediate extinction of the kingship.
Fifth century BC During the
Persian invasion of 480 BC, Thebes assisted the invaders. In consequence, for a time, the presidency of the Boeotian League was taken from Thebes, but in 457 BC the
Spartans reinstated that city as a bulwark against Athenian aggression after the
Battle of Tanagra. Athens retaliated with a sudden advance upon Boeotia, and after the victory at the
Battle of Oenophyta took control of the whole country, taking down the wall the Spartans had built. With the victory the Athenians also occupied
Phocis, the original source of the conflict, and Opuntian
Locris. For ten years the land remained under Athenian control, which was exercised through the newly installed democracies; but in 447 BC the people revolted, and after a victory at the
Battle of Coronea regained their independence. Two Boeotarchs were provided by Thebes, but by 395 BC Thebes was providing four Boeotarchs, including two who had represented places now conquered by Thebes such as Plataea,
Scolus,
Erythrae, and
Scaphae.
Orchomenus,
Hysiae, and
Tanagra each supplied one Boeotarch.
Thespiae,
Thisbe, and
Eutresis supplied two between them.
Haliartus,
Lebadea and
Coronea supplied one in turn, and so did
Acraephia,
Copae, and
Chaeronea. The total military force of the Boiotian League (11,000 infantry and 1,100 cavalry) has been used as the basis for a number of calculations of the population of the region in the early fourth century BC.
John Bintliff assumes an additional 21,000 light troops and rowers in the navy, for a total of 33,100 men. Assuming the same number of women, two children and one slave for every household, he estimates the total Boeotian population at 165,500 (including 33,100 slaves).
Mogens Herman Hansen assumes an additional 12,100 light troops, for a total of 24,200 men in the army. He assumes that 25% of men were ineligible for military service, so his total population of men between the ages of twenty and fifty is 30,250. Using
model life tables he calculates a total male citizen population of 72,240 and an equal number of women, for a minimum free population of 144,050, plus an unknown number of slaves and foreign residents. He proposes a maximum of 250,000. By comparison, the population of Boeotia was 38,000–50,000 in the late sixteenth century, according to
tahrir records, 40,000–42,000 in the 1889 census, and 117,920 in the 2011 census.
Fourth century BC Boeotia took a prominent part in the
Corinthian War against Sparta, especially in the battles of
Haliartus and
Coronea (395–394 BC). This change of policy was mainly due to the popular resentment against foreign interference. Yet disaffection against Thebes was now growing rife, and Sparta fostered this feeling by insisting on the complete independence of all the cities in the
Peace of Antaclidas (387 BC). In 374 BC,
Pelopidas restored Theban dominance. Boeotian contingents fought in all the campaigns of
Epaminondas against the Spartans, most notably at the
Battle of Leuctra in 371 BC, and in the
Third Sacred War against
Phocis (356–346 BC); while in the dealings with
Philip of Macedon the cities merely followed Thebes. The federal constitution was also brought into accord with the democratic governments now prevalent throughout the land. Sovereign power was vested in the popular assembly, which elected the Boeotarchs (between seven and twelve in number), and sanctioned all laws. After the
Battle of Chaeroneia, in which the Boeotian heavy infantry once again distinguished itself, the land never again rose to prosperity.
Hellenistic period The destruction of Thebes by
Alexander the Great (335 BC) destroyed the political energy of the Boeotians. They never again pursued an independent policy, but followed the lead of protecting powers. Although military training and organization continued, the people proved unable to defend the frontiers, and the land became more than ever the "dancing-ground of Ares". Although enrolled for a short time in the Aetolian League (about 245 BC) Boeotia was generally loyal to
Macedon, and supported its later kings against Rome. Rome dissolved the league in 171 BC, but it was revived under
Augustus, and merged with the other central Greek federations in the
Achaean synod. The death-blow to the country's prosperity was dealt by the devastations during the
First Mithridatic War.
Middle Ages and later |250pxSave for a short period of prosperity under the
Frankish rulers of Athens (1205–1310), who repaired the underground drainage channels (
katavóthra) of Lake Kopais and fostered agriculture, Boeotia long continued in a state of decay, aggravated by occasional barbarian incursions. The first step toward the country's recovery was not until 1895, when the drainage channels of Kopais were again put into working order. ==Archaeological sites==