Boston, 1774–1775 British troops had been stationed in Boston since 1769 amid rising tensions between colonial subjects and the parliament in Great Britain. Fearing the impending insurrection General
Thomas Gage dispatched an expedition to remove gunpowder from the
powder magazine in Massachusetts on 1 September 1774. The next year on the night of 18 April 1775, Gage sent a further 700 men to seize munitions stored by the colonial militia at
Concord, leading to the
Battles of Lexington and Concord, the first battles of the
American Revolutionary War. The British troops stationed in
Boston were largely inexperienced, and by the time the redcoats began the return march to Boston, several thousand American militiamen had gathered along the road. A running battle ensued, and the British detachment suffered heavily before reaching Charlestown. The British army in Boston found itself under siege by thousands of colonial militia. On 17 June, British forces now under the command of
General William Howe retaliated, seizing the Charlestown peninsula in the
Battle of Bunker Hill. Although successful in his objective, the British forces suffered heavy casualties in taking the position. Both sides remained at stalemate until guns were placed on the
Dorchester Heights, at which point Howe's position became untenable and the British abandoned Boston entirely. Howe wrote on 5 March 1776: "The rebels have done more in one night than my whole army would have done in a month." —
General Howe, 5 March 1776
Canada, 1775–1776 After capturing
Fort Ticonderoga, American forces under the command of General
Richard Montgomery launched an invasion of British controlled Canada. They besieged and captured
Fort Saint-Jean, while another army moved on Montreal. However, they were defeated at the
Battle of Quebec and British forces under the command of General
Guy Carleton launched a counter invasion which drove the colonial forces from the province entirely and reached all the way to Lake Champlain, however came short of recapturing Fort Ticonderoga.
New York and New Jersey, 1776 After withdrawing from
Boston, Howe immediately began preparations to seize New York, which was considered the 'hinge' of the colonies. In late August, 22,000 men (including 9,000 Hessians The navy failed to properly blockade the
East River, which opened an escape route for Washington's army, which he used, managing a nighttime retreat through unguarded
Manhattan Island. British forces then fought a series of actions to consolidate control of Manhattan Island, culminating in the
Battle of Fort Washington, which resulted in the capture of nearly 3,000
Continental troops. Following the conquest of Manhattan,
Howe ordered
Charles Cornwallis to "clear the rebel troops from New Jersey without a major engagement, and to do it quickly before the weather changed." Cornwallis' force drove Washington's army from present-day
New Jersey. Washington and the
Continental Army crossed the
Delaware River into present-day
Pennsylvania, where Washington regrouped and began planning a retaliatory attacks. After considering several options, Washington settled on what would prove one of Washington's most complex and unexpected military maneuvers. Washington chose to
covertly cross the Delaware River However, in the pre-dawn hours of 26 December, Washington crossed back into New Jersey and captured a garrison of Hessians at
Trenton. Several days later, Washington outmaneuvered Cornwallis at
Assunpink Creek and overwhelmed a British outpost at
Princeton on 3 January 1777. Cornwallis rallied and again drove Washington away, however the defeats showed the British army had become too overstretched and Howe abandoned most of his outposts in New Jersey. "I cannot too much commend Lord Cornwallis's good services during this campaign, and particularly the ability and conduct he displayed in the pursuit of the enemy from Fort Lee to Trenton, a distance exceding eighty miles, in which he was well supported by the ardour of his corps, who cheerfully quitted their tents and heavy baggage as impediments to their march." —General Howe, 20 December 1776
Saratoga, 1777 in the
Philadelphia campaign, American patriots moved the
Liberty Bell to
Zion United Church of Christ on present-day
Hamilton Street in
Allentown, Pennsylvania, where the Liberty Bell was successfully hidden under the church's floor boards for nine months until the British departed Philadelphia in June 1778 's army at
Saratoga Following the failure of the New York and New Jersey campaign to bring about a decisive victory over the Americans, the British army adopted a radically new strategy. Two armies would invade from the north to capture
Albany, one of 8,000 men (British and Germans) under the command of General
John Burgoyne, and another of 1,000 men (British, German, Indian, Loyalists, Canadians) under
Brigadier General Barry St. Leger, while a third army under the command of
General Howe advanced from New York in support. Through poor co-ordination and unclear orders, the plan failed. Howe believed that he could not support a Northern army until the threat of Washington's army had been dealt with and moved on
Philadelphia instead. The early stages of Burgoyne's campaign met with success, capturing the forts Crown Point, Ticonderoga, and Anne. However, part of his army was destroyed at
Bennington. After winning a hard fought battle at Freeman's Farm, bought with heavy casualties, Burgoyne complained at the inexperience of his soldiers, that his men were too impetuous and uncertain in their aim, and that his troops remained in position to exchange volleys too long, rather than switch to the bayonet. however his subordinate General Fraser advised him of the fatigued state of the British light infantry and Grenadiers and that a renewed assault following a further night's rest would be carried out with greater vivacity. Burgoyne launched the second attempt to break through the American lines early in the following month, which failed at
Bemis Heights with losses that Burgoyne's force could not sustain. Burgoyne was finally compelled surrender after it had become clear he was surrounded. Burgoyne's campaign tactics were greatly criticised, the composition of his force was disjointed, and his decision to overload his army with artillery (expecting a long siege) meant his army could not advance rapidly enough through the difficult terrain, allowing the Americans too much time to gather an overwhelming force to oppose him. The defeat had far reaching consequences as the French (who had already been secretly supporting the colonists) decided to openly support the rebellion and eventually declared war on Britain in 1778. "I fear it bears heavy on Burgoyne...If this campaign does not finish the war, I prophesy that there is an end of British dominion in America." —
General Henry Clinton, July 1777
Philadelphia, 1777–1778 While Burgoyne invaded from the North, Howe led an army of 15,000 men, including 3,500
Hessians, by sea to attack the
revolutionary capital of
Philadelphia. Rapidly outflanked by Washington at the
Battle of Brandywine, however, Howe was unable to secure any notable military gain, and most of the Continental Army troops under Washington's command managed to escape. After inconclusive skirmishes with Washington and Continental Army troops in the
Battle of the Clouds, a battalion of British light infantry made a surprise assault at the
Battle of Paoli, eschewing their muskets in favor of bayonets to minimize the sound they made as they approached. All remaining resistance to Howe was eliminated in this attack, and the rest of Howe's army marched into Philadelphia unopposed. The capture of Philadelphia did not turn the war in Britain's favour, and Burgoyne's army was left isolated with only limited
support from Sir
Henry Clinton, who was responsible for defending New York. Howe remained garrisoned in Philadelphia with 9,000 troops. He came under heavy attack from Continental Army troops under Washington's command, but Washington was driven off at the
Battle of Germantown. After an
unsuccessful attempt to capture Fort Mifflin, Howe eventually took the forts of
Mifflin and Mercer. After probing Washington's fortifications at the
Battle of White Marsh, Howe returned to the British winter quarters and resigned his command shortly thereafter, complaining that he had been inadequately supported. Command was subsequently given to Clinton who, after the French entered the war in support of American independence, carried out orders to evacuate the British army from Philadelphia in the south to New York in the north. He did this with an overland march, fighting a large action at the
Battle of Monmouth in present-day
New Jersey along the way. "...I do not think that there exists a more select corps than that which General Howe has assembled here. I am too young and have seen too few different corps, to ask others to take my word; but old Hessian and old English officers who have served a long time, say that they have never seen such a corps in respect to quality..." —Captain Muenchhausen, June, 1777
Raiding operations, 1778–1779 In August 1778, a combined Franco-American attempt to drive British forces from
Rhode Island failed. One year later an American expedition to drive British forces from
Penobscot Bay also failed. In the same year Americans launched a successful
expedition to drive Native Americans from the frontier of New York, and captured a
British outpost in a nighttime raid. During this period the British army carried out a series of successful raiding operations, taking supplies, destroying military defences, outposts, stores, munitions, barracks, shops and houses.
Southern colonies, 1780–1781 at the
Battle of Camden in present-day
Camden, South Carolina The first major British operation in the Southern colonies occurred in 1776, when a force under General Henry Clinton unsuccessfully besieged the fort at
Sullivan's Island. In 1778, a British force of 3,000 troops under Lieutenant Colonel
Archibald Campbell successfully
captured Savannah, beginning a campaign to bring the colony of Georgia under British control. A Franco-American attempt to
retake Savannah in 1779 ended in failure. In 1780, the main British strategic focus turned to the
Southern Colonies. British planners wrongly were convinced that a sizable number of
Loyalists existed in the southern colonies. Based on that flawed assumption, they believed, a large Loyalist army could be raised to occupy the territories that had been pacified by regular British troops. In May 1780, an army of 11,000 men under the command of Henry Clinton and
Charles Cornwallis captured Charleston along with 5,000 of the Continental army. Shortly afterwards Clinton returned to New York leaving Cornwallis with a force of less than 4,000 men and instructions to secure control of the southern colonies. At first Cornwallis was successful, winning a lopsided victory at the
Battle of Camden and sweeping most resistance aside. However, failing supplies and increasing partisan activity gradually wore down his occupying troops, and the destruction of a loyalist force under Major
Ferguson at
King's Mountain, all but ended any hopes of large scale loyalist support. In January 1781, Tarleton's cavalry force was destroyed at the
Battle of Cowpens. Cornwallis then determined to destroy the Continental army under
Nathanael Greene. Cornwallis invaded North Carolina and engaged in a pursuit over hundreds of miles that became known as the "Race to the Dan". Cornwallis's ravaged army met Greene's army at
Battle of Guilford Court House, and although Cornwallis was victorious he suffered heavy casualties. With little hope of reinforcements from Clinton, Cornwallis then decided to move out of
North Carolina and invade
Virginia. Meanwhile, Greene moved back into
South Carolina and began attacking the British outposts there. "Whenever the Rebel Army is said to have been cut to pieces it would be more consonant with truth to say that they have been dispersed, determined to join again... in the meantime they take oaths of allegiance, and live comfortably among us, to drain us of our monies, get acquainted with our numbers and learn our intentions." —Brigadier General
Charles O'Hara, March 1781
Yorktown, 1781 army following the
Siege of Yorktown In early 1781, the British army began conducting raids into
Virginia. Former Continental army officer
Benedict Arnold, then a brigadier in the British Army after defecting, led a force with
William Phillips that raided and destroyed Continental Army supply bases. He later occupied
Petersburg and led a small battle
Blandford. After hearing that British forces were in Virginia and believing that
North Carolina could not be subdued unless its supply lines in Virginia were cut, Cornwallis decided to join forces with Phillips and Arnold. Cornwallis's army fought a series of
skirmishes against Continental Army troops under the command of
Lafayette prior to fortifying themselves with their back to the sea, believing the Royal Navy could maintain supremacy over the
Chesapeake Bay. He then sent requests to Clinton to be either resupplied or evacuated. The reinforcements took too long to arrive, and in September the French fleet successfully blockaded Cornwallis in
Chesapeake Bay. Royal Navy Admiral Graves believed that the threat posed to New York was more critical and withdrew. Cornwallis then became surrounded by
Continental Army forces under command by Washington and French General
Rochambeau. Outnumbered and with no avenue of relief or escape, Cornwallis was compelled to surrender his army. "If you cannot relieve me very soon, you must prepare to hear the worst." —
General Charles Cornwallis, September 17, 1781
West Indies, 1778–1783 In 1776, an American force captured the British island of
Nassau. After the French entered the Revolutionary War, several poorly defended British islands fell quickly. In December 1778, a force of veteran British troops under the command of General
James Grant landed in
St. Lucia, and successfully captured the high grounds of the islands. Three days later, 9,000 French reinforcements landed and attempted to assault the British position, but were
repulsed with heavy casualties. Despite this victory, multiple other Caribbean islands under British control were lost during the war. On 1 April 1779, Lord Germain instructed Grant to establish small garrisons throughout the West Indies, Grant believed this would be unwise and instead concentrated defences to cover the major naval bases. He posted the
15th,
28th, and
55th Foot and 1,500 gunners at
Saint Kitts. The
27th,
35th, and
49th Foot and 1,600 gunners defended
Saint Lucia. Meanwhile, the royal dockyard at
Antigua was held by an 800-man garrison of the
40th and
60th Foot. Grant also reinforced the fleet with 925 soldiers. Although Britain lost other islands, his dispositions provided the basis for the British successes in the
Caribbean during the final years of the war, including the
recapture of the Bahamas from the Spanish in 1783.
East Indies, 1778–1783 In 1778, British forces began attacking French enclaves in
India, first capturing the French port of
Pondicherry, and seizing the port of
Mahé. The Mysorean ruler
Hyder Ali, an important ally of France, declared war on Britain in 1780. Ali invaded
Carnatic with 80,000 men, laying siege to British forts in Arcot. A British attempt to relieve the siege ended in disaster at
Pollilur. Ali continued his sieges taking fortresses, before another British force under General
Eyre Coote defeated the Mysoreans at
Porto Novo. Fighting continued until 1783 when the British captured Mangalore, and the
Treaty of Mangalore was signed which restored both sides lands to
Status quo ante bellum.
Gulf Coast, 1779–1781 Beginning in 1779, the governor of Spanish Louisiana
Bernardo de Gálvez led a successful offensive to conquer British West Florida, which culminated in the
Siege of Pensacola in 1781.
Spanish Central America, 1779–1780 Britain made two attempts to capture Spanish territory in
Central America: in 1779 at the
Battle of San Fernando de Omoa and in 1780 in the
San Juan Expedition. In both cases, initial British military success was defeated by tropical diseases, with the 2,500 dead of the San Juan Expedition giving it the highest British death toll of the war. The Spanish repeatedly attacked the British settlements on the Caribbean coast but failed to drive them out. The British under
Edward Despard however succeeded in
retaking the Black River settlement in August 1782 with the surrender of the entire Spanish force.
Europe, 1779–1783 Europe was the setting of three of the largest engagements of the entire war. With French and Spanish forces combined they firstly
attempted to invade England in 1779 but were unsuccessful due to misfortune and poor planning. They then succeeded with the
capture of Minorca in 1781 but the largest of them all was the unsuccessful
attempt to capture Gibraltar, which occurred in 1783 and involved over 100,000 men, and hundreds of guns and ships. In September 1782, the grand assault on the besieged Gibraltar garrison took place, which was the largest single battle of the war, involving over 60,000 soldiers, sailors and marines. France also twice unsuccessfully attempted to capture the British channel island of
Jersey, in
1779 and again in
1781. ==Post-Treaty of Paris (1783 to 1788)==