The values that became bushido evolved significantly over the centuries to the present. The written term
bushido first appears in the
Koyo Gunkan of roughly circa 1616, an account of the military exploits of the
Takeda clan. (1147–1199) The appearance of bushido is linked to that of feudal Japan and the first
shogun at the time of
Minamoto no Yoritomo (1147–1199) in the 12th century. The own moral dimension of bushido gradually appears in the warrior culture and is landmarked in stories and military treaties only from the 14th and 15th centuries. At the time of the
Genpei War (1180–1185), it was called
"Way of the Bow and the Horse" (弓馬の道, kyūba no michi) There was also
"Yumiya toru mi no narai" (customs for those who draw the bow). During the early modern era, these ideals were vigorously pursued in the upper echelons of warrior society and recommended as the proper form of the Japanese man of arms. The influence of Shinto, Buddhism, Taoism, and Confucianism on bushido's early development instilled among those who live by the code a religious respect for it. Many early literary works of Japan talk of warriors, but the term
bushidō does not appear in text until the Edo period. The code which would become bushido was conceptualized during the late-
Kamakura period (1185–1333) in Japan. Since the days of the
Kamakura shogunate, the "way of the warrior" has been an integral part of Japanese culture. The samurai were role models for society since medieval times. In accordance with
Confucianism, one of their duties was to serve as a role model for society. They balanced their martial arts skills with peaceful accomplishments such as literature, poetry, and the
tea ceremony. Such as the medieval Japanese proverb
Hana wa sakuragi, hito wa bushi (, literally "the [best] blossom is the cherry blossom; the [best] man is the warrior"). In 1843 Nakamura said:
Muromachi-Azuchi (1336–1603) During the
Muromachi period (1336–1573), the way of the warrior began to
refine by inserting in their daily activities, alongside martial training,
Zen meditation,
painting (monochrome style),
ikebana, the
tea ceremony,
poetry such as the
death poem (written by samurai before suicidal missions or battles) and
literature. The practice of decapitating and collecting enemy heads is an example of honor in samurai culture. The severed heads were shown to a general as evidence that they killed wanted opponents and to collect rewards. A Samurai adhering to bushido-like codes was expected to live a just and ethical social life, honoring the practices of the gentry in the absence of military campaigns. In addition to the "house codes" issued in the context of the fiefdoms (han) and texts that described the right behavior of a warrior (such as the Hagakure), the first
Buke shohatto (Laws for the Military Houses, 武家諸法度) was issued by the government in 1615, which prescribed to the lords of the fiefdoms (
daimyo) and the samurai warrior aristocracy responsibilities and activities, the rules of conduct, simple and decent clothing, the correct supply in case of official visits, etc. The edicts were reissued in 1629, and in 1635, by the third shogun
Tokugawa Iemitsu. The new edicts made clear the shogunate's authority and its desire to assert control. The swordsmanship skills of the samurai developed into character-building martial arts. The
bushidō literature of this time contains much thought relevant to a warrior class seeking more general application of martial principles and experience in peacetime, as well as reflection on the land's long history of war. The literature of this time includes: •
Shoke no Hyōjō by Ogasawara Sakuun (1621) The Koyo Gunkan describes valor and exploits in battle. However, it does not have a set of principles regarded as "true" or "false", but rather varying perceptions widely regarded as formidable throughout different centuries. Emphasized by Thomas Cleary, During the
Genna era (1615–1624) of the
Edo period and later, the concept of "the way of the gentleman" (Shidō) was newly established by the
philosopher and
strategist Yamaga Sokō (1622–1685) and others who tried to explain this value in the
morality of the
Confucian Cheng–Zhu school. For the first time, Confucian ethics (such as Honor and Humanity", "filial piety") became the norm required by samurai. Yamaga Sokō was widely viewed as the "Sage of Bushidō" in early twentieth-century Japan. Martial arts scholar Ogasawara Sakuun compiled 20 scrolls called Shoke no Hyōjō about the military arts in 1621. Chikamori's pen name was Nyoraishi (如儡子). The kashoki are 5 scrolls with wide-ranging content, including samurai knowledge with moral precepts, For example: apply skills in any situation, always carry two swords, learn how to effectively use the lance,
naginata, bow and arrow, and guns. A daimyo should know the strength of his troops and how to properly deploy them. Devote yourself to training to master a way, avoid evil acts and thoughts, broaden perspectives with arts and knowledge about different professions, make objective judgments, etc. Dai said after the samurai class was heavily influenced by Confucian ideals of compassion, their bushido became a "life of blood and tears essentially", because they selflessly shed blood for their lords and cried tears of compassion for farmers and other lower-class people. The
Hagakure contains many sayings attributed to
Sengoku-period retainer
Nabeshima Naoshige (1537–1619) regarding
bushidō related philosophy early in the 18th century by
Yamamoto Tsunetomo (1659–1719), a former
retainer to Naoshige's grandson,
Nabeshima Mitsushige. The
Hagakure was compiled in the early 18th century, but was kept as a kind of "secret teaching" of the
Nabeshima clan until the end of the Tokugawa
bakufu (1867). His saying, "
I have found the way of the warrior is death", was a summation of the focus on honour and reputation over all else that
bushidō codified. This is occasionally misinterpreted that bushido is a code of death. The true meaning is that by having a constant consciousness of death, people can achieve a state of freedom that transcends life and death, whereby "''it is possible to perfectly fulfill one's calling as a warrior.''" committing
seppuku, 1703 The aging Yamamoto Tsunetomo's interpretation of
bushidō is perhaps more illustrative of the philosophy refined by his unique station and experience, at once dutiful and defiant, ultimately incompatible with the laws of an emerging civil society. Of the 47
rōnin—to this day, generally regarded as exemplars of
bushidō—Tsunetomo felt they were remiss in hatching such a wily, delayed plot for revenge, and had been over-concerned with the success of their undertaking. Instead, Tsunetomo felt true
samurai should act without hesitation to fulfill their duties, without regard for success or failure. This romantic sentiment is, of course, expressed by warriors throughout history, though it may run counter to the art of war itself. This ambivalence is found in the heart of
bushidō, and perhaps all such "
warrior codes". Some combination of traditional
bushidō's organic contradictions and more "universal" or "progressive" formulations (like those of Yamaga Sokō) would inform Japan's disastrous military ambitions in the 20th century. According to the social psychologist Toshio Yamagishi (
:ja:山岸俊男, 1948–2018), "Bushido is the ideal human image formed mainly in the Edo period, in other words, a virtue in the groupism world."
Meiji (1868–1926) , in the center a
katana and on the right a
yari Recent scholarship in both Japan and abroad has focused on differences between the samurai caste and the bushido theories that developed in modern Japan. Bushido evolved considerably over time. Bushido in the prewar period emphasized the role of the emperor and placed greater value on the imperial virtues of loyalty and self-sacrifice than many Tokugawa-era interpretations. '', 1900 Prominent scholars consider the bushido prevalent since the
Meiji era to be a simplification of the attributes of samurai. Samurai originally fought for personal matters and the honor of their family and clan. When Japan was unified, the role of samurai included public administrative responsibilities, such as public order preservation, judicial responsibility, infrastructure maintenance, disaster recovery, farmland development, healthcare administration, and industrial promotion. Dai argued that Japanese combative tendency and militarism were purely founded in Japan's socio-religious superstitions centered on the notion of divine authority. It did not exist in Chinese or Indian thought. Bushido was used as a propaganda tool by the government and military, who doctored it to suit their needs. The original
Imperial Rescript to Soldiers and Sailors of 1882 uses the word
hōkoku (報国), signifying the idea of indebtedness to one's nation because of one's birth. Such debt must be repaid through physical or mental exertion. This idea did not exist in earlier bushido. Chinese writer
Zhou Zuoren regarded the bushido promoted by the military as a corruption of a noble and ancient tradition. In 1936, Zhou wrote about the loss of humanity and empathy of traditional bushido during the deterioration of the Second World War. He pointed to the samurai novel by
Jun'ichirō Tanizaki as an example where victors of a battle treated enemy corpses with dignity. Bushido regained popularity and became intertwined with Japan's nationalist expression in the mid-1800s in response to Britain's invasion of China in the
First Opium War. Xenophobia toward Westerners rose in Japan during the 1850s and 1860s which contributed to the perceived legitimacy of the imperial restoration. Use of "bushido" in text increased during this period, and its concept was viewed with more positivity. While it disappeared during the 1870s, it reappeared in the 1880s to express the loss of traditional values during the rapid introduction of Western civilization and a renewed sense of urgency to defend Japanese traditions. The
victory of Japan over China in 1895 restored a feeling of pride in bushido, which was considered the "origin of military success." The researcher Oleg Benesch argued that the concept of modern bushido changed throughout the modern era as a response to foreign stimuli in the 1880s, such as the English concept of the gentleman.
Nitobe Inazō's bushido interpretations followed a similar trajectory, though he was following earlier trends. This relatively pacifistic bushido was hijacked and adapted by militarists and the government from the early 1900s as nationalism increased around the time of the
Russo–Japanese War. The entrepreneur
Fukuzawa Yukichi appreciated bushido and emphasized that maintaining the morale of scholars is the essence of eternal life. Nitoto Inazuke submitted his book,
Bushido, to
Emperor Meiji and stated, "Bushido is prosperous here, assists Komo, and promotes the national style, so that the public will return to the patriotic virtues of loyal ministers." He wrote that bushido has slightly different requirements for men and women. For women, bushido means guarding their chastity, educating their children, supporting their husbands, and maintaining their families. The
junshi suicide of
General Nogi Maresuke and his wife on the death of Emperor Meiji earned praise as an example of opposition to the trend of decaying morals in Japan. It also earned criticism from those who believed that aspect of bushido should not be revived. After the Meiji Restoration, the martial arts etiquette represented by
Ogasawara-ryū (小笠原流) popularized training. Bushido-influenced martial arts and education corresponded with nationalistic ideals prevalent before 1941. Honoring tradition through bushido-inspired martial skills enabled society to remain interconnected, harnessing society's reverence for ancestral practices for national strength. According to researcher William R. Patterson, "The martial arts were seen as a way not to maintain ancient martial techniques but instead to preserve a traditional value system, Bushido, that could be used to nurture national spirit. In the midst of modernization, the Japanese were struggling to hold onto some traditions that were uniquely Japanese, and that could unify them as countrymen."
to present war as purifying, and death a duty. Bushido was pitched as revitalizing traditional values and "transcending the modern". Bushido would provide a spiritual shield to let soldiers fight to the end. When giving orders,
General Hideki Tojo routinely slapped the faces of the men under his command, saying face-slapping was a "means of training" men who came from families that were not part of the samurai caste, and for whom bushido was not second nature. Tojo wrote a chapter in the book
Hijōji kokumin zenshū (
Essays in time of national emergency) which the Army Ministry published in March 1934. It called for Japan to become a totalitarian "national defense state". It included 15 essays by senior generals and argued Japan defeated Russia in the Russo–Japanese War because bushido gave the Japanese superior willpower: they did not fear death, unlike the Russians who wanted to live. s'' on 11 May 1945, 389 personnel were killed or went missing, and 264 were wounded. As the Second World War turned, the spirit of bushido was invoked to urge that all depended on the firm and united soul of the nation. When Japan lost the
Battle of Attu, the government attempted to paint the more than two thousand Japanese deaths as an inspirational epic for the fighting spirit of the nation. Arguments that the plans for the
Battle of Leyte Gulf, involving all Japanese ships, would expose Japan to danger if they failed, were countered with the plea that the Navy be permitted to "bloom as flowers of death". The Japanese believed that indoctrination in bushido would give them the edge as the Japanese longed to die for the emperor, while the Americans were afraid to die. However, superior American pilot training and airplanes meant the Japanese were outclassed by the Americans. The first proposals of
organized suicide attacks met resistance. While bushido called for a warrior to be always aware of death, they were not to view it as the sole end. However, desperation brought about acceptance and such attacks were acclaimed as the true spirit of bushido. Bushido regarded surrender as cowardly. Those who did forfeited their honor and lost dignity and respect: The practice of beheading captured soldiers and prisoners originates from samurai culture in the 14th century or earlier. == Contemporary bushido ==