Cavalry types and equipment Kataphraktoi The
cataphract was an armoured cavalry
horse archer and
lancer who symbolized the power of
Constantinople in much the same way as the
legionary represented the might of Rome. The cataphract wore a conical-shaped helmet, topped with a tuft of horsehair dyed in his unit's colour. The helmet was often complemented by mail armour as an aventail to protect the throat, neck and shoulders, which could also cover part or all of the face. He wore a hauberk of doubled-layered mail or
scale armour, which extended down to the knees. Over the hauberk, he would also wear a
lamellar cuirass that could have sleeves or not. Leather boots or
greaves protected his lower legs, while
gauntlets protected his hands. He carried a small, round shield, the
thyreos, bearing his unit's colours and insignia strapped to his left arm, leaving both hands free to use his weapons and control his horse. Over his mail shirt he wore a surcoat of lightweight cotton and a heavy cloak, both of which were also dyed in unit colours. The horses often wore
barding of mail or scale armour with surcoats. The cataphract's weapons included: • Composite bow: Same as that carried by the Toxotai. •
Kontarion: or lance, slightly shorter and less thick than that used by the skutatoi which could also be thrown like a
pilum. •
Spathion: Also identical to the infantry weapon. • Dagger: Sometimes referred to as a "Machaira" • Battle axe: Usually strapped to the saddle as a backup weapon and tool. •
Vamvakion: Same as that of the infantry but with a leather corselet usually depicted in red. The lance was topped by a small flag or pennant of the same colour as helmet tuft, surcoat, shield and cloak. When not in use the lance was placed in a saddle boot, much like the
carbines of later cavalrymen. The bow was slung from the saddle, from which also was hung its quiver of arrows. Later Byzantine saddles, which included stirrups (adopted from the
Avars), were an improvement over earlier Roman and Greek cavalry, who had used the four horned saddle without stirrups. The Byzantine state also made horse breeding a priority for the Empire's security. If they could not breed enough high quality mounts, they would purchase them from other cultures. The catafracti were cavalry regiments heavily armored riders and horses who fought in deployed column orders most effective against enemy infantry. Meanwhile, Clibanarii were also heavily armored horsemen, but were used primarily against cavalry. They employed a spear and shield and the horse’s armor was changed from plate to leather, most often fighting in a wedge formation.
Light Cavalry The Byzantines fielded various types of
light cavalry to complement the
kataphraktoi, in much the same way as the Hellenistic kingdoms employed auxiliary light infantry to support their heavily armored phalangites. Due to the empire's long experience, they were wary of relying too much upon foreign auxiliaries or mercenaries (with the notable exception of the Varangian Guard). Imperial armies usually comprised mainly citizens and loyal subjects. The decline of the Byzantine military during the 11th century is parallel to the decline of the peasant-soldier, which led to the increased use of unreliable mercenaries. Light cavalry were primarily used for scouting, skirmishing and screening against enemy scouts and skirmishers. They were also useful for chasing enemy light cavalry, who were too fast for the Cataphracts. Light cavalry were more specialized than the Cataphracts, being either archers and horse slingers (
psiloi hippeutes) or lancers and mounted javelineers. The types of light cavalry used, their weapons, armour and equipment and their origins, varied depending upon the time and circumstances. In the 10th century military treatise
On Skirmishing explicit mention is made of
Expilatores, a Latin word which meant "robber" or "plunderer" but which is used to define a type of mounted scout or light raider. Also mentioned in descriptions of army- or
thematic-level light cavalry are
trapezites, "those whom the Armenians call
tasinarioi", who "should be sent out constantly to charge down on the lands of the enemy, cause harm and ravage them." Indeed, the word
tasinarioi may be the linguistic ancestor to the modern word
Hussar. If the need for light cavalry became great enough, Constantinople would raise additional Toxotai, provide them with mounts and train them as Hippo-toxotai. When they did employ foreign light horsemen, the Byzantines preferred to recruit from
steppe nomad tribes such as the
Sarmatians,
Scythians,
Pechenegs,
Khazars or
Cumans. On occasion, they recruited from their enemies, such as the
Bulgars,
Avars,
Magyars or
Seljuk Turks. The
Armenians were also noted for their light horsemen, the
tasinarioi.
Cavalry organization and formations The Byzantine cavalrymen and their horses were superbly trained and capable of performing complex manoeuvres. While a proportion of the cataphracts appear to have been lancers or archers only, most had bows and lances. Their main tactical units were the
numerus (also called at times
arithmos or
banda) of 300-400 men. The equivalent to the old Roman
cohort or the modern
battalion, the Numeri were usually formed in lines 8 to 10 ranks deep, making them almost a mounted phalanx. The Byzantines recognized that this formation was less flexible for cavalry than infantry but found the trade off to be acceptable in exchange for the greater physical and psychological advantages offered by depth. In the 10th century military treatise attributed to Emperor
Nikephoros II,
On Skirmishing, it is stated that the cavalry army of any mobile army commanded by the emperor must be of at least 8,200 riders, not including 1,000 household cavalry—that is, the force belonging personally to the Emperor. These 8,200 horse ought to be divided "into 24 units of up to three hundred men each. These twenty-four units, in turn, just as with the infantry, should make up four groupings of equal strength, each with six combat units." In such an organisation, the author of
On Skirmishing argues, the army can proceed on the march with these units "covering the four directions, front rear and the sides." The Byzantines usually preferred using the cavalry for flanking and envelopment attacks, instead of frontal assaults and almost always preceded and supported their charges with arrow fire. The front ranks of the numeri would draw bows and fire on the enemy's front ranks, then once the foe had been sufficiently weakened would draw their lances and charge. The back ranks would follow, drawing their bows and firing ahead as they rode. This combination of missile fire with shock action put their opponents at a grave disadvantage - If they closed ranks to better resist the charging lances, they would make themselves more vulnerable to the bows' fire, if they spread out to avoid the arrows the lancers would have a much easier job of breaking their thinned ranks. Many times the arrow fire and start of a charge were enough to cause the enemy to run without the need to close or melee. A favorite tactic when confronted by a strong enemy cavalry force involved a feigned retreat and ambush. The Numeri on the flanks would charge at the enemy horsemen, then draw their bows turn around and fire as they withdrew (the
Parthian Shot). If the enemy horse did not give chase, they would continue harassing them with arrows until they did. Meanwhile, the Numeri on the left and right rear would be drawn up in their standard formation facing the flanks and ready to attack the pursuing enemy as they crossed their lines. The foes would be forced to stop and fight this unexpected threat but as they did the flanking Numeri would halt their retreat, turn around and charge at full speed into their former pursuers. The enemy, weakened, winded and caught in a vice between two mounted phalanxes would break with the Numeri they once pursued now chasing them. Then the rear Numeri, who had ambushed the enemy horse, would move up and attack the unprotected flanks in a double envelopment. This tactic is similar to what
Julius Caesar did at
Pharsalus in 48 BC when his allied cavalry acted as bait to lure the superior horse of
Pompey into an ambush by the six elite cohorts of his reserve "Fourth line". The Arab and Mongol cavalries would also use variations of it later to great effect when confronted by larger and more heavily armed mounted foes. When facing opponents such as the
Vandals or the
Avars with strong armoured cavalry, the cavalry were deployed behind the armoured infantry who were sent ahead to engage the enemy. The infantry would attempt to open a gap in the enemy formation for the cavalry to charge through. ==Byzantine Art of War==