Origins The original homeland of the Cumans is unknown before their eventual settlement in the Eurasian steppe's western part.
Qun Chinese authors mentioned a
Tiele tribe named 渾 (
Mand. Hún (<
MC *
ɦuon), possibly a transcription of underlying *
Qun) located north of the
Tuul River. The writings of al-Marwazi (c. 1120) state that a
Turkic "Qun" people came from the northern Chinese borders—"the land of Qitay" (possibly during a part of a migration from further east). After leaving the lands of the
Khitans (possibly due to the Khitans' expansion), the Qun entered the territory of the
Śari people, whom the Quns expelled. Marwazi wrote that the Qun were
Nestorian Christians. however, Golden later suggests that the Quns were
Turkic. Despite this, it is possible that certain tribes forming a part of the Cuman–Kipchak conglomerate were of Mongolic origin. Golden considers the Ölberli to have originally been Mongolic-speaking and argues that they were pushed westwards as a result of socio-political changes among the Khitans. The Syrian historian
Yaqut (1179–1229) also mentions the Qun in
The Dictionary of Countries, where he notes that "(the sixth iqlim) begins where the meridian shadow of the equinox is seven, six-tenths, and one-sixth of one-tenth of a foot. Its end exceeds its beginning by only one foot. It begins in the homeland of the
Qayi,
Qun,
Khirkhiz,
Kimak, at-
Tagazgaz, the lands of the
Turkomans, Fārāb, and the country of the
Khazars." The Armenian historian,
Matthew of Edessa (died 1144), also mentioned the Cumans, using the name
χarteš, meaning "blond", "pale", "fair".
Kipchak relationship It cannot be established whether the Cumans conquered the
Kipchaks, if the Śari whom the Quns had defeated were to be identified as Kipchaks, or whether they simply represent the western mass of largely Kipchak-Turkic speaking tribes. The Quns and Śari (whom Czeglédy (1949:47-48,50) identifies with
Yellow Uyghurs Potapov writes that:
Conquests The Cumans entered the grasslands of the present-day southern
Russian steppe in the 11th century AD and went on to assault the
Byzantine Empire, the
Kingdom of Hungary, the
Principality of Pereyaslavl and
Kievan Rus'. The Cumans' entry into the area pressed the
Oghuz Turks to shift west, which in turn caused the Pechenegs to move to the west of the
Dnieper River. Robert Wolff states that it was discipline and cohesion that permitted the Cuman–Kipchaks to conquer such a vast territory. According to the 12th-century Jewish traveler
Petachiah of Regensburg "they have no king, only princes and royal families". The Cumans had a commercial interest in
Crimea, where they also took tribute from Crimean cities. A major area of commerce was the ancient city of
Sudak, which Ibn al-Air viewed as the "city of the Qifjaq from which (flow) their material possessions. It is on the Khazar Sea. Ships come to it bearing clothes. The Qifjiqs buy from them and sell them slaves. Burtas furs, beaver, squirrels..." Due to their political dominance, the
Cuman language became Crimea's
lingua franca. Thus the language was adopted by the
Karaite Jewish and Crimean Armenian communities (who produced many documents written in Kipchak with the Armenian alphabet In 1068 at the
Battle of the Alta River, the Cumans defeated the armies of the three sons of
Yaroslav the Wise, Grand Prince
Iziaslav I of Kiev, Prince
Sviatoslav of Chernigov, and Prince
Vsevolod of Pereyaslavl. After the Cuman victory, they repeatedly invaded Kievan Rus', devastating the land and taking captives, who became either their slaves or were sold at markets in the south. The most vulnerable regions were the Principality of Pereyaslavl, the
Principality of Novgorod-Seversk and the
Principality of Chernigov. The Cumans initially managed to defeat the Grand Prince
Vladimir II Monomakh of Kievan Rus' in 1093 at the
Battle of the Stugna River, but they were defeated later by the combined forces of Rus principalities led by Monomakh and were forced out of the Rus' borders to the Caucasus. In these battles some
Pecheneg and
Oghuz groups were liberated from the Cumans and incorporated into the Rus' border-guard system. Khan
Boniak launched invasions on Kiev in 1096, 1097, 1105, and 1107. In 1096, Boniak attacked Kiev and burned down the princely palace in Berestove; he also plundered the Kievan Cave Monastery. Boniak was defeated near
Lubny in 1107 by the forces of the Kievan Rus' princes. The Cumans led by Boniak crushed the Hungarian army led by
Coloman in 1099 and seized the royal treasury. In 1109, Monomakh launched another raid against the Cumans and captured "1,000 tents". The Hungarian army was soundly crushed by the Cumans; the
Illuminated Chronicle mentions that "rarely did Hungarians suffer such slaughter as in this battle." In 1104 the Cumans were allied with Prince Volodar. In 1106, the Cumans advanced into the
Principality of Volhynia, but were repelled by
Sviatopolk II. In 1114, the Cumans launched an invasion, from the western Romanian Plain, into the Byzantine Balkans once more. This was followed up by another incursion in 1123/1124. In 1135, the Cumans again invaded the Kingdom of Poland. During the second and third crusades, in 1147 and 1189, crusaders were attacked by Cumans, who were allied to the
Asen dynasty of the Second Bulgarian Empire, or who were in Byzantine service. By 1160 Cuman raids into Rus' had become an annual event. These attacks put pressure on Rus' and affected trade routes to the
Black Sea and
Constantinople, in turn leading Rus' to again attempt action. Offenses were halted during 1166–1169, when Grand prince
Andrey Bogolyubsky, son of Khan Ayepa's daughter, took control of Kiev in 1169 and installed Gleb as his puppet. Gleb brought in "wild" Cumans as well as Oghuz and
Berendei units. Later, the princes of the Principality of Chernigov attempted to use Khan Konchek's army against Kievan Rus' and
Suzdal. This Chernigov-Cuman alliance suffered a disastrous defeat in 1180; Elrut, Konchek's brother died in battle. In 1177, a Cuman army that was allied with Ryazan sacked six cities that belonged to the Berendei and
Torkil. In 1183, the Rus' defeated a large Cuman army and captured Khan Kobiak (Kobek) as well as his sons and other notables. Subsequently, Khan Konchek concluded negotiations. Like his son Khan
Köten, preceding the Mongol invasion, Khan Konchek was successful in creating a more cohesive force out of the many Cuman groups—he united the western and eastern Cuman–Kipchak tribes. Khan Konchek also changed the old Cuman system of government whereby rulership went to the most senior tribal leader; he instead passed it on to his son Koten. the Cumans are believed to have played a significant role in the
uprising led by brothers Asen and Peter of
Tarnovo, resulting in victory over Byzantium and the restoration of Bulgaria's independence in 1185. István Vásáry states that without the active participation of the Cumans, the Vlakho-Bulgarian rebels could never have gained the upper hand over the Byzantines, and ultimately without the military support of the Cumans, the process of Bulgarian restoration could never have been realized. Cuman troops continued to be hired throughout the 13th and 14th century by both the Bulgarians and Byzantines. The Cumans who remained east and south of the
Carpathian Mountains established a county named Cumania, which was a strong military base in an area consisting of parts of
Moldavia and
Wallachia.
Mongol invasions Like most other peoples of medieval Eastern Europe, the Cumans put up a resistance against the relentlessly advancing
Mongols led by
Jebe and
Subutai. The Mongols crossed the Caucasus mountains in pursuit of
Muhammad II, the shah of the
Khwarezmid Empire, and met and defeated the Cumans in Subcaucasia in 1220. The Cuman
khans Danylo Kobiakovych and Yurii Konchakovych died in battle, while the other Cumans, commanded by Khan
Köten, managed to get aid from the Rus' princes. The Cumans were allied at Kalka River with Wallach warriors named Brodnics, led by Ploscanea. Brodnics' territory was in the lower parts of the
Prut river in modern Romania and Moldova. During the second Mongol invasion of Eastern Europe in 1237–1240 the Cumans were defeated again; at this time groups of Cumans went to live with the Volga Bulgars, who had not been attacked yet. The final blow came in 1241, when Cuman control over the
Pontic steppes ended and the Cuman–Kipchak confederation ceased to exist as a political entity, with the remaining Cuman tribes being dispersed, either becoming subjects and mixing with their Mongol conquerors, as part of what was to be known as the Golden Horde (Kipchak Khanate) and
Nogai Horde, or fleeing to the west, to the Byzantine Empire, the Second Bulgarian Empire, and the
Kingdom of Hungary, where they integrated into the elite and became kings and nobles with many privileges. Other Cuman captives were sold as slaves, who would go on to become
Mamluks in Egypt, who would attain the rank of Sultan or hold regional power as
emirs or beys. Some of these Mamluks led by Sultan
Baibars would fight the Mongols again, defeating them at the
Battle of Ain Jalut and the
Battle of Elbistan. A group of Cumans under two leaders named and Saronius, the former of whom was higher in rank, entered the
Latin Empire of Constantinople as allies about 1240, probably fleeing the Mongols. The name Saronius (found in
Alberic of Trois-Fontaines, who calls the leaders kings) is probably a corruption of the Cuman name Sïčgan, meaning "mouse". They assisted the Emperor
Baldwin II in the capture of
Tzurullon from the
Nicaeans in that year. The following year the Christian daughters of Saronius married two of the leading noblemen of the empire,
Baldwin of Hainaut and William of Meri, while Jonas's daughter married
Narjot III de Toucy, who had once served as regent of the empire in Baldwin's absence. When Narjot died in 1241, his wife became a nun. Jonas died that same year and was buried in a
tumulus outside Constantinople in a pagan ceremony. According to Aubrey, eight volunteer warriors and twenty-six horses were sacrificed at the funeral. However, the Teutonic Knights failed to defeat the Cumans and began to establish a
country independent of the King of Hungary. In 1238, after Mongol attacks on Cumania, King
Béla IV of Hungary offered refuge to the remainder of the Cuman people under their leader Khan
Köten, who in turn vowed to convert his 40,000 families to Christianity. King Béla hoped to use the new subjects as auxiliary troops against the Mongols, who were already threatening Hungary. The Cumans were joined by the Iranian
Jasz people, who had been living with the Cumans. When news of this outrage reached the Cuman camp there was an eruption of "Vesuvian intensity". In revenge for this victimization they slaughtered a vast number of Hungarians. of
Kunság, where Cumans in Hungary settled, divided into
Little Cumania and
Greater Cumania With this departure of its only ally and most efficient and reliable military force, Hungary was now further weakened to attack, and a month later it was destroyed by the Mongols. The Cuman tribes subsequently settled throughout the
Great Hungarian Plain, creating two regions incorporating the name
Cumania (
Kunság in Hungarian):
Greater Cumania (
Nagykunság) and
Little Cumania (
Kiskunság). Six of these tribes were the Borchol (Borscol), who settled in county of
Temes (the Borchol clan was also active around Rus'; they were also a tribe of the Golden Horde mentioned as Burcoylu); Csertan, who settled in Little Cumania; Olas, who settled in Greater Cumania; Iloncsuk, who settled in Little Cumania; Kor, who settled in the
county of Csanad and the sixth being, possibly, Koncsog. During the following centuries, the Cumans in Hungary were granted rights and privileges, the extent of which depended on the prevailing political situation. Some of these rights survived until the end of the 19th century, although the Cumans had long since assimilated with Hungarians. The Cumans were different in every way to the local population of Hungary—their appearance, attire, and hairstyle set them apart. In 1270,
Elizabeth the Cuman, the daughter of a Cuman chieftain Seyhan, became queen of Hungary. Elizabeth ruled during the minority of her son (future king
Ladislaus IV of Hungary) in the years of 1272–1277. A struggle took place between her and the noble opposition, which led to her imprisonment by the rebels; but supporters freed her in 1274. During her reign, gifts of precious clothes, land, and other objects were given to the Cumans with the intent to ensure their continued support, and in particular during the
civil war between King Béla IV and
Stephen V of Hungary, when both sides tried to gain Cuman support. During this conflict, in 1264, Béla sent Cuman troops commanded by the chieftain Menk to fight his son Stephen. Elizabeth married Stephen V; they were parents of six children. Their son, Ladislaus IV became the king of Hungary while her other son, Andrew of Hungary, became Duke of
Slavonia. By 1262, Stephen V had taken the title of 'Dominus Cumanorum' and became the Cumans' highest judge. After his enthronement, the Cumans came directly under the power of the king of Hungary and the title of 'Dominus Cumanorum' (
judge of the Cumans) had passed to the count palatine, who was the highest official after the king. The Cumans had their own representatives and were exempt from the jurisdiction of county officials. There were clashes between the Hungarians and Cumans in 1280 and 1282. The first involved the king convincing the Cumans not to leave the country, yet a small group still moved to Wallachia. The second was
a battle between Cuman rebels and the king's forces. receives the envoy of Voivode
Basarab of Wallachia in 1330, the envoy wears a Cuman dress. (
Chronicon Pictum, 1358) as "king" of Hungary, 1777 The Cumanians' settlements were destroyed during the Turkish wars in the 16th and 17th centuries; more Cumans than Hungarians were killed. Around 1702, Cuman and Jasz privileges were lost. The court sold all three districts to the Teutonic Knights, though the lordship of these three regions was returned to Hungary. In 1734,
Karcag became a market town, due to the permission to organize fairs. During this time, it had bought off its borders as its own property for 43,200 Rhenish florins. On May 6, 1745, due to the cooperation between the Cumans and Jasz people, as well as their material strength of their communities, they were able to officially buy off their freedom by paying off more than 500,000 Rhenish florins and by arming and sending to camp 1,000 cavalry. At the beginning of the 18th century, the Cumanian territories were resettled by Hungarian-speaking descendants of the Cumans. In the middle of the 18th century, they got their status by becoming free farmers and no longer serfs. Here, the Cumans maintained their autonomy, language, and some ethnic customs well into the modern era. According to Pálóczi's estimation, originally 70–80,000 Cumans settled in Hungary. Other estimations are 180–200,000. on the throne around his knights in the years of 1350s. On his left is a group of oriental, long-dressed figures with bows, arrows, and sabers. (
Chronicon Pictum, 1358) Today there are still villages in Turkey, Kazakhstan and Ukraine founded by Cumans. This prayer, which was translated into the Cuman language in order to
Christianize Shamanist Cumans in
Hungary, was recorded in the
TRT Documentary Özü Türk program:
Cuman involvement in Serbia Cuman involvement in Serbia first occurred as a result of marital ties between Serbia and Hungary. King Stephen V of Hungary gave his daughter, Catherine (whose mother was Queen Elizabeth the Cuman, daughter of the Cuman chieftain Seyhan) in marriage to
Stefan Dragutin, son of King
Stefan Uroš I of Serbia. King Uroš had promised both his son and King Stephen that he would make Dragutin king during his own lifetime; but he later declined this. Dragutin, in disappointment, requested aid from King Stephen, who said he would lend his Hungarian and Cuman troops. Subsequently, Dragutin set out with his troops and marched on his father. King Uroš had declined once more, and in 1276 Dragutin clashed with his father's army in
Gacko, winning the battle. Afterwards, Dragutin took the throne and became king of Serbia. After King Stephen's death, his son, Ladislaus IV the Cuman, continued to support Dragutin, his brother-in-law. From 1270 onwards Cuman mercenaries and auxiliaries were present on both sides of the warring factions, sometimes ignoring the orders of the party they were fighting for, instead acting on their own and looting the countryside. The Cumans had also burned down Žiča, the former see of the archbishopric of the Serbian Church. Shishman may have established his authority over the Vidin region as early as the 1270s, after the death of the previous ruler of that area, Jacob Svetoslav. Danilo, a Serbian archbishop, reported, "At that time in the land of the Bulgars a prince called Shishman emerged. He lived in the town of Vidin, and obtained the adjacent countries and much of the Bulgarian land." Some years after, Shishman invaded Serbia and got as far as
Hvosno. After failing to capture Ždrelo, he returned to Vidin, which was subsequently attacked and devastated by King Milutin. However, Milutin replaced him on his throne on the basis that he would become Shishman's ally. In fact, the alliance was strengthened by Shishman marrying the daughter of the Serbian grand
župan Dragos. Further security came about when Milutin later gave his daughter Anna as a wife to Shishman's son
Michael, who in 1323 became Tsar of Bulgaria. In 1086 Cumans devastated Byzantine settlements in the Balkans. Later the Cumans joined the Pechenegs and the former Hungarian king,
Salomon, in plundering the Byzantine Balkan provinces. Subsequent to this, the Cumans gave aid to Tatos, the chief of Distra. In 1091 there was a disagreement in plunder shares between the Cumans and Pechenegs, which resulted in a breach between the two peoples; this contributed to the Cumans (led by Togortok/Tugorkan and Boniak, who had repeatedly raided Kievan Rus') joining
Alexios I Komnenos against the Pechenegs in the
Battle of Levounion. Cumans invaded Thrace where they pillaged towns that had recently come under the control of the
Nicaean Empire. This continued until 1242 when Nicaean emperor
John III Doukas Vatatzes, in response to the situation, won their favour with "gifts and diplomacy". Later, he succeeded in settling a group of Cumans in
Anatolia, in the Meander valley and the region east of
Philadelphia, and another group in the regions of
Anatolia near
Constantinople.
Traces of Cumans in Anatolia In 1239–1240, large groups of Cumans fleeing from the
Mongols crossed the
Danube. These groups wandered for a long time to find a suitable place to settle in
Thrace.
John III Doukas Vatatzes who wanted to prevent Cumans invasion of
Empire of Nicaea lands and to benefit from their military capabilities invited Cumans in
Empire of Nicaea service. He settled some of them in Thrace and Macedonia, and some in Anatolia to the Meander (Menderes) valley and some to the Phrygia and Bithynia. These Cumans preserved their identity after the
Ottomans conquered the lands they lived in. It is accepted that some of the Cumans who settled in West Anatolia during the reign of Emperor
John III Dukas Vatatzes of Nicaea are the ancestors of a part of the community called
Manavs living in Northwest Anatolia today.
Traces of Cumans in Romania Toponyms pointing at a Cuman presence were preserved in names of villages and places in the
Wallachian Plain, for example: Comana, Comanca, Câmpia Comancei and Valea Comancei in
Olt County, Comanii Vechi, Comăneanca (
Prahova County), Vadul Cumanilor (near
Calafat). ==Culture==