Canada and the United States have negotiated the
boundary between the countries over many years, with the last significant agreement having taken place in 1984 when the
International Court of Justice ruled on the
maritime boundary in the
Gulf of Maine. Likewise, Canada and France had previously contested the maritime boundary surrounding the islands of
St. Pierre and Miquelon, but accepted a 1992
International Court of Arbitration ruling. Remaining disputes include managed maritime boundary disputes with the US (
Dixon Entrance,
Beaufort Sea,
Strait of Juan de Fuca,
Machias Seal Island).
Arctic disputes routes A long-simmering dispute between Canada and the U.S. involves the issue of Canadian sovereignty over the
Northwest Passage (the sea passages through the Arctic Archipelago). Canada's assertion that the Northwest Passage represents internal (territorial) waters has been challenged by other countries, especially the U.S., which argue that these waters constitute an
international strait (international waters). Canadians were incensed when Americans drove the reinforced oil tanker Manhattan through the Northwest Passage in 1969, followed by the icebreaker
Polar Sea in 1985, both without asking for Canadian permission. In 1970, the Canadian government enacted the Arctic Waters Pollution Prevention Act, which asserts Canadian regulatory control over pollution within a zone. In response, the Americans in 1970 stated, "We cannot accept the assertion of a Canadian claim that the Arctic waters are internal waters of Canada.... Such acceptance would jeopardize the freedom of navigation essential for United States naval activities worldwide." A compromise was reached in 1988, by an agreement on "Arctic Cooperation," which pledges that voyages of American icebreakers "will be undertaken with the consent of the Government of Canada." However the agreement did not alter either country's basic legal position. Essentially, the Americans agreed to ask for the consent of the Government of Canada without conceding that they were obliged to. In January 2006, David Wilkins, the American ambassador to Canada, said his government opposes Stephen Harper's proposed plan to deploy military icebreakers in the Arctic to detect interlopers and assert Canadian sovereignty over those waters. Along with other nations in the
Arctic Council, Canada, Sweden, Iceland, Norway, Finland, Denmark and Russia, the maritime boundaries in the far north will be decided after countries have completed their submissions, due in 2012. Russia has made an extensive claim based on the Russian position that everything that is an extension of the
Lomonosov Ridge should be assigned to Russia. Their submission had been rejected when first submitted by the United Nations in 2001. In June 2019, the U.S. State Department spokesperson
Morgan Ortagus said the US "view Canada’s claim that the waters of the Northwest Passage are internal waters of Canada as inconsistent with international law." In December 2024, Canada outlined plans to address growing global interest in the Arctic, driven by climate change and geopolitical tensions, including Russia's actions in Ukraine. Recognizing climate change as the central threat, Canada committed to strengthening regional alliances, particularly with the U.S., while enhancing military defenses and asserting sovereignty over the Northwest Passage. It also aimed to resolve territorial disputes with the U.S. and Denmark, revive the Arctic ambassador role, and expand diplomatic ties in Alaska and Greenland. Indigenous leaders, though supportive, stressed the urgent need for better infrastructure in Arctic communities to bolster sovereignty and resilience. == Diplomatic relations ==