Ethics of care

The originator of the ethics of care was Carol Gilligan, an American ethicist and psychologist. Gilligan created this model as a critique of her mentor, developmental psychologist Lawrence Kohlberg's model of moral development. Gilligan observed that measuring moral development by Kohlberg's stages of moral development found boys to be more morally mature than girls, and this result held for adults as well (although when education is controlled for there are no gender differences). Gilligan argued that Kohlberg's model was not objective, but rather a masculine perspective on morality, founded on principles of justice and rights. In her 1982 book In a Different Voice, she further posited that men and women have tendencies to view morality in different terms. Her theory claimed women tended to emphasize empathy and compassion over the notions of morality in terms of abstract duties or obligations that are privileged in Kohlberg's scale. Dana Ward stated, in an unpublished paper, that Kohlberg's scale is psychometrically sound. Subsequent research suggests that the differences in care-based or justice-based ethical approaches may be due to gender differences, or differences in life situations of genders. Gilligan's summarizing of gender differences provided feminists with a voice to question moral values and practices of the society as masculine. ==Relationship to traditional ethical positions==

Care ethics is different from other ethical models, such as consequentialist theories (e.g. utilitarianism) and deontological theories (e.g. Kantian ethics), in that it seeks to incorporate traditionally feminine virtues and values which, proponents of care ethics contend, are absent in traditional models of ethics. One of these values is the placement of caring and relationship over logic and reason. In care ethics, reason and logic are subservient to natural care, that is, care that is done out of inclination. This is in contrast to deontology, where actions taken out of inclination are unethical. Virginia Held has noted the similarities between care ethics and virtue ethics but distinguished it from the virtue ethics of British moralists such as Hume in that people are seen as fundamentally relational rather than independent individuals. Other philosophers have argued about the relation between care ethics and virtue ethics, taking various positions on the question of how closely the two are related. Jason Josephson Storm argued for close parallels between the ethics of care and traditional Buddhist virtue ethics, especially the prioritization of compassion by Śāntideva and others. Other scholars had also previously connected ethics of care with Buddhist ethics. ==Care ethics as feminist ethics==

While some feminists have criticized care-based ethics for reinforcing traditional gender stereotypes, others have embraced parts of the paradigm under the theoretical concept of care-focused feminism. Care-focused feminism, alternatively called gender feminism, is a branch of feminist thought informed primarily by the ethics of care as developed by Carol Gilligan and Nel Noddings. Noddings' care-focused feminism requires practical application of relational ethics, predicated on an ethic of care. Ethics of care is a basis for care-focused feminist theorizing on maternal ethics. These theories recognize caring as an ethically relevant issue. Critical of how society engenders caring labor, theorists Sara Ruddick, Virginia Held, and Eva Feder Kittay suggest caring should be performed and care givers valued in both public and private spheres. This proposed paradigm shift in ethics encourages the view that an ethic of caring be the social responsibility of both men and women. Joan Tronto argues that the definition of "ethic of care" is ambiguous due in part to it not playing a central role in moral theory. She argues that considering moral philosophy is engaged with human goodness, then care would appear to assume a significant role in this type of philosophy. == In politics ==

It is often suggested that the ethics of care is only applicable within families and groups of friends, but many feminist theorists have argued against this suggestion, including Ruddick, Manning, Held, and Tronto. Attempts have been made to apply principles from the ethics of care more generally, by identifying values in one particular caring relationship and applying these values to other situations. Moral values are seen as embedded in acts of care. The ethics of care is contrasted with theories based on the "liberal individual" and a social contract, following Locke and Hobbes. Ethics-of-care theorists note that in many situations, such as childhood, there are very large power imbalances between individuals, and so these relationships are based on care rather than any form of contract. Noting the power imbalances that can exist in society, it is argued that care may be a better basis to understand society than freedom and social contracts. == In Contemporary Art ==

Care ethics has been applied to artistic practice, methodology, and institutional culture under the framework of Ethics of care in contemporary art. Rooted in the foundational work of Mierle Laderman Ukeles, whose Manifesto for Maintenance Art (1969) elevated everyday acts of maintenance, as cleaning, repairing, sustaining, to the status of artistic practice, ethics of care in the contemporary art foregrounds process over product, collective maintenance over individual authorship, and interdependence over creative autonomy. These principles have since expanded into socially engaged art, participatory practice, community-based creation, and feminist institutional critique. Texts and Critical Perspectives • Visible: art as policies for care: socially engaged art 2010-ongoing : Book (2024, NERO Editions), edited by Martina Angelotti, Matteo Lucchetti and Judith Wielander, on socially engaged art (2010–ongoing), featuring projects by Tania Bruguera, Forensic Architecture, and Zanele Muholi, exploring art as a form of care policy in relation to social, political, and ecological issues. • Radicalizing Care : Feminist and Queer Activism in Curating : Book (2021, Berlin, Germany: Sternberg Press) by Lesia Prokopenko, Nataša Petrešin-Bachelez, Edna Bonhomme and others, exploring how feminist and queer care ethics inform curatorial practices through essays, case studies, and manifestos. • What’s Love (or Care, Intimacy, Warmth, Affection) Got to Do with It? : Book (2017, Berlin, Germany: Sternberg Press & e-flux Books), with contributions by Paul Chan, Martha Rosler, Fred Moten and others, examining how care, intimacy, and desire have been addressed and theorized in socially engaged practices and writings since 2009. == In mental health ==

Psychiatrist Kaila Rudolph noted that care ethics aligns with a trauma-informed care framework in psychiatry. == Criticism ==

In the field of nursing, the ethics of care has been criticized by Peter Allmark, Helga Kuhse, and John Paley. Care ethics has been criticised for failing to protect the individual from paternalism, noting there is a risk of caregivers mistaking their needs for those of the people they care for. Individuals may need to cultivate the ability to distinguish their own needs from those that they care for, with Ruddick arguing for a need to respect the "embodied willfulness" of those who are cared for. ==See also==