The Iberians were an ancient people indigenous to the Iberian Peninsula. The Iberians lived in villages and
oppida (fortified settlements) and their communities were based on a
tribal organization. The Iberians in the
Spanish Levant were more urbanized than their neighbors in the central and northwestern regions of the
Iberian Peninsula. The peoples in the central and northwest regions were mostly speakers of
Celtic dialects, semi-pastoral and lived in scattered villages, though they also had a few fortified towns like
Numantia. They had a knowledge of
writing,
metalworking, including
bronze, and
agricultural techniques.
Settlements , 6th century BC, showing
Hittite influence In the centuries preceding Carthaginian and Roman conquest, Iberian settlements grew in
social complexity, exhibiting evidence of
social stratification and
urbanization. This process was probably aided by trading contacts with the
Phoenicians,
Greeks, and
Carthaginians. By the late 5th and early 4th centuries BC a series of important social changes led to the consolidation of an aristocracy and the emergence of a
clientele system. "This new political system led, among other things, to cities and towns that centered around these leaders, also known as
territorial nucleation. In this context, the
oppidum or fortified Iberian town became the centre of reference in the landscape and the political space." The settlement of
Castellet de Banyoles in
Tivissa was one of the most important ancient Iberian settlements in the northeastern part of the Iberian Peninsula that was discovered in 1912. Also, the 'Treasure of Tivissa', a unique collection of silver Iberian votive offerings was found here in 1927.
Lucentum was another ancient Iberian settlement, as well as
Castelldefels Castle.
Mausoleum of Pozo Moro near the town of
Chinchilla de Monte-Aragón in
Castile-La Mancha seems to mark the location of another big settlement.
Sagunto is the location of an ancient Iberian and later Roman city of Saguntum, where a big fortress was built in the 5th century BC.
Greek colonists made the first historical reference to the Iberians in the 6th century BC. They defined Iberians as non-Celtic peoples south of the
Ebro river (Iber). The Greeks also dubbed as "Iberians" another people in the
Caucasus region, currently known as
Caucasian Iberians. It is thought that there is no connection between the two peoples. The Iberians traded extensively with other Mediterranean cultures. Iberian
pottery and metalwork has been found in
France,
Italy, and
North Africa. The Iberians had extensive contact with
Greek colonists in the colonies of
Emporion,
Rhode, and
Hemeroskopeion. The Iberians may have adopted some of the
Greeks' artistic techniques.
Statues such as the
Lady of Baza and the
Lady of Elche are thought to have been made by Iberians relatively well acquainted with Greek
art.
Thucydides stated that one of the three original tribes of
Sicily, the
Sicani, were of Iberian origin, though "Iberian" at the time could have included what we think of as
Gaul. The Iberians were also in contact with the
Phoenicians, who had established various colonies in southern
Andalucia. Their first
colony on the Iberian Peninsula was founded in 1100 BC and was originally called
Gadir, later renamed by the Romans as
Gades (modern
Cádiz). Other Phoenician colonies in southern Iberia included Malaka (
Málaga),
Sexi and
Abdera. According to
Arrian, the Iberians sent emissaries to
Alexander the Great in 324 BC, along with other embassies of
Carthaginians,
Italics and
Gauls, to request his friendship.
Second Punic War and Roman conquest After the
First Punic War, the massive war debt suffered by Carthage led the city-state to expand its control over the Iberian Peninsula.
Hamilcar Barca began this conquest from his base at
Cádiz by conquering the Tartessian
Guadalquivir river region, which was rich in silver. After Hamilcar's death, his son-in-law
Hasdrubal the Fair continued his incursions into Iberia, founding the colony of Qart Hadasht (modern
Cartagena) and extending his influence all the way to the southern bank of the river
Ebro. After Hasdrubal's assassination in 221 BC, Hannibal assumed command of the Carthaginian forces and spent two years completing the conquest of the Iberians south of the Ebro. In his first campaign, Hannibal defeated the
Olcades, the
Vaccaei and the
Carpetani expanding his control over the river
Tagus region. Hannibal then laid siege to the Roman ally of
Saguntum, which led to the beginning of the
Second Punic War. The Iberian theater was a key battleground during this war and many Iberian and Celtiberian warriors fought for both Rome and Carthage, though most tribes sided with Carthage. Rome sent
Gnaeus and
Publius Cornelius Scipio to conquer Iberia from Carthage. Gnaeus subsequently defeated the Iberian
Ilergetes tribe north of the Ebro which was allied with Carthage, conquered the Iberian
oppidum of
Tarraco and defeated the Carthaginian fleet. After the arrival of Publius Scipio, Tarraco was fortified and, by 211 BC, the Scipio brothers had overrun the Carthaginian and allied forces south of the Ebro. However, during this campaign, Publius Scipio was killed in battle and Gnaeus died in the retreat. The tide turned with the arrival of
Publius Cornelius Scipio Africanus in 210 BC. Scipio attacked and conquered
Carthago Nova and defeated the army of
Hasdrubal Barca at the
Battle of Baecula (209–208). The war dragged on with Carthage sending more reinforcements until the
Battle of Ilipa (modern
Alcalá del Río in
Sevilla province), which was a decisive victory for Publius Scipio Africanus. The Carthaginians retreated to
Gades, and Publius Scipio gained control over the entire south of the peninsula. After this victory, the Ilergetes and other Iberian tribes revolted and it was only after this revolt that the Romans conquered the rest of the Carthaginian territories in southern Spain. After the Carthaginian defeat, the Iberian territories were divided into two major provinces,
Hispania Ulterior and
Hispania Citerior. In 197 BC, the Iberian tribes revolted once again in the Hispania Citerior province. After securing these regions, Rome invaded and conquered
Lusitania and
Celtiberia. The Romans fought a
long and drawn-out campaign for the conquest of Lusitania. Wars and campaigns in the northern regions of the Iberian Peninsula would continue until 16 BC, when the last rebellions were defeated during the
Cantabrian Wars. == Iberian culture ==