History ,
Paula and
Eustochium by
Francisco de Zurbarán, 1638–1640 The introduction of monasticism into the West may be dated from about AD 340 when St. Athanasius visited Rome accompanied by the two Egyptian monks Ammon and Isidore, disciples of St. Anthony. The publication of the "Vita Antonii" some years later and its translation into Latin spread the knowledge of Egyptian monachism widely and many were found in Italy to imitate the example thus set forth. The first Italian monks aimed at reproducing exactly what was done in Egypt and not a few—such as
Saint Jerome,
Rufinus,
Paula,
Eustochium and the two Melanias (
Elder and
Younger)—actually went to live in Egypt or Palestine as being better suited to monastic life than Italy. Honoratus was called to be
Bishop of Arles.
John Cassian began his monastic career at a monastery in Palestine and Egypt around 385 to study monastic practice there. In Egypt, he had been attracted to the isolated life of hermits, which he considered the highest form of monasticism, yet the monasteries he founded were all organized monastic communities. About 415 he established two monasteries near
Marseille, Monastic spirituality came to Britain and then Ireland from Gaul, by way of Lérins, Tours, and Auxerre. Its spirituality was heavily influenced by the Desert Fathers, with a monastic enclosure surrounding a collection of individual monastic cells. The British church employed an episcopal structure corresponding closely to the model used elsewhere in the Christian world.
Illtud,
David,
Gildas, and
Deiniol were leading figures in 6th-century Britain. According to
Thomas O'Loughlin, "Each monastery should be seen, as with most monasteries of the period, as an individual response to the monastic impulse by someone who had experienced monasticism and then went off to establish either a hermitage to which others later came or a cenobitic community." The monasteries were organized on a family basis. Next in importance to the abbot was the scribe, in charge of the scriptorium, the teaching function of the monastery, and the keeping of the annals. The role of scribe was often a path to the position of abbot. Hereditary right and relationship to the abbot were factors influencing appointment to monastic offices. Buildings would generally have been of wood, wattle, and thatch. Monasteries tended to be cenobitical in that monks lived in separate cells but came together for common prayer, meals, and other functions. Celtic monasticism was characterized by a rigorous asceticism and a love for learning. Some more austere ascetics became hermits living in remote locations in what came to be called the "green martyrdom".
Double monasteries The monastery of
Brigit of Kildare at
Kildare, Ireland, was a double monastery, with both men and women, supervised by an Abbess, a pattern found in other monastic foundations.
Scotland Around 397,
Ninian, a Briton probably from the area south of the Firth of Clyde, dedicated his church at
Whithorn to St. Martin of Tours. According to
Bede, Ninian evangelized the southern Picts.
Kentigern was an apostle of the British Kingdom of Strathclyde in the late 6th century and the founder and patron saint of the city of Glasgow. Due to anti-Christian sentiment, he re-located for a time to Wales, where he established a monastery at
St. Asaph's. Here he divided the monks into three groups. The unlettered was assigned to the duty of agriculture, the care of cattle, and the other necessary duties outside the monastery. He assigned 300 to duties within the cloister of the monastery, such as , preparing food, and building workshops. The remaining monks, who were lettered, he appointed to the celebration of divine service in church by day and by night.
Wales Cadoc founded
Llancarfan in the latter part of the fifth century. He received the religious habit from an Irish monk, St. Tathai, superior of a small community near Chepstow, in Monmouthshire. Returning to his native county, Cadoc built a church, and monastery, which was called Llancarfan, or the "Church of the Stags". There he also established a college and a hospital. His legend recounts that he daily fed a hundred clergy and a hundred soldiers, a hundred workmen, a hundred poor men, and the same number of widows. When thousands left the world and became monks, they very often did so as clansmen, dutifully following the example of their chief. Bishoprics, canonries, and parochial benefices passed from one to another member of the same family, and frequently from father to son. Their tribal character is a feature which Irish and Welsh monasteries had in common.
Illtyd spent the first part of his religious life as a disciple of Cadoc at Llancarfan. He founded the monastery at
Llanilltyd Fawr. One of his students was
Paul Aurelian, a key figure in Cornish monasticism.
Gildas the Wise was also a student at Llanilltyd Fawr, although when
King Alfred sought a scholar for his court, he summoned
Asser of St David's. Contemporary with David were
Teilo,
Cadoc,
Padarn,
Beuno and
Tysilio among them.
Cornwall Many early medieval settlements in the region were occupied by hermitage chapels which are often dedicated to
St Michael as the conventional slayer of pagan demons, as at
St Michael's Mount.
Ireland The earliest monastic settlements in Ireland emerged at the end of the fifth century. It was from Illtud and his colleagues that the Irish sought guidance on matters of ritual and discipline.
Enda of Aran is called the "patriarch of Irish monasticism".
Finnian of Moville studied under
Colman of Dromore and Mochae of Noendrum, before he too went to Candida Casa. Ireland was a rural society of chieftains living in the countryside. As in Wales, if a clan chieftain accepted Christianity so did those he ruled. Commonly, Irish monasteries were established by grants of land to an abbot or abbess who came from a local noble family. The monastery became the spiritual focus of the tribe or kin group. Successive abbots and abbesses were members of the founder's family, a policy which kept the monastic lands under the jurisdiction of the family (and corresponded to Irish legal tradition, which only allowed the transfer of land within a family). In Ireland, the abbot was often called "coarb", a term designating the heir or successor of the founder. In Ireland, a distinctive form of
penance developed, where confession was made privately to a priest, under the seal of secrecy, and where penance was given privately and ordinarily performed privately as well. Penance was considered therapeutic rather than punitive. Certain handbooks were made, called "
penitentials", designed as a guide for confessors and as a means of regularising the penance given for each particular sin. According to Thomas Pollock Oakley, the penitential guides first developed in Wales, probably at St. David's, and spread by missions to Ireland. Irish monasticism maintained the model of a monastic community while, like John Cassian, marking the contemplative life of the hermit as the highest form of monasticism. Saints' lives frequently tell of monks (and abbots) departing some distance from the monastery to live in isolation from the community. Irish monastic rules specify a stern life of prayer and discipline in which prayer, poverty, and obedience are the central themes. Irish monks learned Latin, the language of the Church. Thus they read Latin texts, both spiritual and secular. Subjects taught included Latin, Greek, Hebrew, grammar, rhetoric, poetry, arithmetic, chronology, the Holy Places, hymns, sermons, natural science, history and especially the interpretation of Sacred Scripture. Irish monastic achievements of
insular art, in
illuminated manuscripts like the
Book of Kells,
high crosses, metalwork like the
Ardagh Chalice and the
Cross of Cong and manuscript decoration had a profound influence on Western medieval art. The manuscripts were produced by and for monasteries, and evidence suggests that metalwork was produced in both monastic and royal workshops.
Culdees The Culdees (, "Spouses of God") were members of ascetic
Christian monastic and
eremitical communities of
Ireland,
Scotland,
Wales and
England in the
Middle Ages. Appearing first in Ireland and subsequently in Scotland, attached to cathedral or collegiate churches, they lived in monastic fashion though not taking monastic vows.
Hiberno-Scottish mission Irish monasticism spread widely, first to
Scotland and
Northern England, then to Gaul and Italy.
Columba and his followers established monasteries at
Bangor, on the northeastern coast of Ireland, at
Iona, an island north-west of Scotland, and at
Lindisfarne, which was founded by Aidan, an Irish monk from Iona, at the request of King
Oswald of Northumbria. Abbots of Iona were normally appointed from the founders kin, with an abbot often naming his successor. Prayer was a monk's first priority. Apart from prayer, monks performed a variety of tasks, such as preparing medicine, lettering, reading, and others. Also, these monks would work in the gardens and on the land. They might also spend time in the
cloister, a covered colonnade around a courtyard, where they would pray or read. Some monasteries held a
scriptorium where monks would write or copy books. The efficiency of Benedict's cenobitic Rule in addition to the stability of the monasteries made them very productive. The monasteries were the central storehouses and producers of knowledge. Vikings started attacking Irish monasteries famous for learning in 793. One monk wrote about how he did not mind the bad weather one evening because it kept the Vikings from coming: "Bitter is the wind tonight, it tosses the ocean's white hair, I need not fear—as on a night of calm sea—the fierce raiders from Lochlann." In the eleventh and twelfth centuries, the growing pressure of monarchies and the nation-states undermined the wealth and power of the orders. Monasticism continued to play a role in Catholicism, but after the
Protestant reformation many monasteries in Anglican England
were shut down and their assets seized. In Evangelical Lutheran lands, certain monasteries, convents and abbeys accepted the Evangelical Lutheran faith and continued their practice; at present, Benedictine spirituality is found in various Evangelical Lutheran monasteries such as
Östanbäck Monastery,
Saint Augustine's House, and
Priory of St. Wigbert.
Military orders In the twelfth century, traditional monastic orders in
Outremer evolved into military orders, initially for the purpose of defending pilgrims, although they later became larger military forces that played a key role in combating Muslim efforts at reconquest and propping up continued Christian rule in the region. These orders included the
Knights Templar,
Knights Sancti Sepulchri and the
Knights Hospitaller. In large part, the notion of military monasticism was popularised because of the advocacy of
St. Bernard of Clairvaux, who believed that existing Christian methods of serving the Church's ends in the war were inadequate and that a group of dedicated warrior monks, who achieved spiritual merit and served God through waging war, was necessary. In his view, advancing the cause of Christendom was an end that justified means that might fall outside the bounds of
just war. These orders largely declined with the loss of Outremer in the 1200s - except for the
Teutonic Order, which transferred itself to the
Baltic where it took up a major role in the
Baltic Crusades.
Western Christian orders in the modern era Many distinct monastic orders developed within
Roman Catholicism and
Protestantism. Monastic communities in the West, broadly speaking, are organized into orders and congregations guided by a particular religious rule, most commonly the
Rule of St Benedict.
Roman Catholicism •
Benedictines, founded in 529 by Saint Benedict at
Monte Cassino, stresses manual labor in a self-sufficient monastery. They are an order of independent monastic communities. •
Cluniacs, a branch of the Benedictines, at its height c.950-c.1130 •
Camaldolese, a branch of the Benedictines, founded c.1000 Saint
Romuald of Ravenna. •
Vallombrosans, a branch of the Benedictines, founded c. 1038 by Saint
John Gualbert. •
Carthusians, also known as the Order of Saint Bruno, founded 1084 by Saint
Bruno of Cologne. Open to both sexes; combines eremitical and cenobitic life. •
Cistercians, the Order of Cîteaux, sometimes referred to as the Order of Saint
Bernard, founded in 1098 by Saint
Robert of Molesme. •
Paulines, founded in
Hungary in 1225 by Blessed
Eusebius. •
Celestines, founded in 1244 and originally called Hermits of
Saint Damiano, or Moronites (or Murronites). Became known as Celestines after their founder was elected Pope and took the name
Celestine V. •
Olivetans or the Order of Our Lady of
Mount Olivet, a branch of the Benedictines, founded in 1313 by
Bernardo Tolomei (born Giovanni Tolomei) along with two of his friends from the noble families of
Siena, Patrizio Patrizi and Ambrogio Piccolomini. •
Bridgettines, founded in 1344 by Saint
Bridget of Sweden. •
Hieronymites, founded in Spain in 1364, by an eremitical community formally known as the Order of Saint
Jerome. •
Conceptionists, formally the Order of the
Immaculate Conception, founded in 1484 by
Saint Beatrice of Silva. •
Turchines, formally the Order of the Most Holy
Annunciation, founded in 1604 by Blessed
Maria Vittoria De Fornari Strata •
Visitandines: the Order of the Visitation of Holy Mary, an order of women. Members of the order are also known as the Visitation Sisters. The Order was founded in 1610 by
Saint Francis de Sales and
Saint Jane Frances de Chantal in
Annecy, Haute-Savoie, France. •
Trappists, a Cistercian reform, begun c. 1664. •
Monastic Brothers and Monastic Sisters of Bethlehem, who practice Carthusian spirituality and were founded in consequence of the influence on a small group of French pilgrims of the promulgation of the
dogma of the
Assumption of the Blessed Virgin Mary into Heaven on November 1, 1950, in
St. Peter's Square, in
Vatican City. The Monastic Sisters were founded in France, soon after the event, and the Monastic Brothers in 1976.
Lutheran Church is an
Evangelical Lutheran monastery in the Benedictine tradition. After the foundation of the
Lutheran Churches, some monasteries in Lutheran lands (such as
Amelungsborn Abbey near
Negenborn and
Loccum Abbey in
Rehburg-Loccum) and convents (such as
Ebstorf Abbey near the town of
Uelzen and
Bursfelde Abbey in
Bursfelde) adopted the Lutheran Christian faith.
Loccum Abbey and
Amelungsborn Abbey have the longest traditions as Lutheran monasteries. Since the 19th century, there has been a renewal in the monastic life among Protestants. There are many present-day Evangelical Lutherans who practice the monastic life in a similar fashion as those of the Catholic Church. In 1947 Mother
Basilea Schlink and Mother Martyria founded the
Evangelical Sisterhood of Mary, in
Darmstadt, Germany. This movement is largely considered
Evangelical or Lutheran in its roots. In 1948
Bavarian Lutheran pastor Walter Hümmer and his wife Hanna founded the
Communität Christusbruderschaft Selbitz. In 1958, men joined Father
Arthur Kreinheder in observing the monastic life and offices of prayer and
The Congregation of the Servants of Christ was established at St. Augustine's House in
Oxford, Michigan. These men and others came and went over the years. The community has remained small; at times the only member was Father Arthur. During the 35 years of its existence, over 25 men tested their vocations to monastic life by living at the house for some time, from a few months to many years, but at Father Arthur's death in 1989, only one permanent resident remained. At the beginning of 2006, there are two permanent professed members and two long-term guests. Strong ties remain with this community and their Benedictine-Evangelical Lutheran brothers in Sweden (
Östanbäck Monastery) and in Germany the (
Priory of St. Wigbert). In Germany,
Communität Casteller Ring is a Lutheran Benedictine community for women. In 2011, an Augustinian religious order, the Priestly Society of St. Augustine (Societas Sacerdotalis Sancti Augustini) was established by the
Anglo-Lutheran Catholic Church. In Lutheran
Sweden, religious life for women had been established by 1954, when Sister Marianne Nordström made her profession through contacts with The
Order of the Holy Paraclete and Mother
Margaret Cope (1886–1961) at St Hilda's Priory,
Whitby, Yorkshire.
Anglican Communion In England,
John Wycliffe organized the
Lollard Preacher Order (the "Poor Priests") to promote his views, many of which resounded with those held by the later Protestant Reformers. Monastic life in England came to an abrupt end with
Dissolution of the Monasteries during the reign of
King Henry VIII. The property and lands of the
monasteries were confiscated and either retained by the King, sold to landowners, or given to loyal
nobility.
Monks and
nuns were pensioned off and retired or some were forced to either flee for the continent or to abandon their vocations. For around 300 years, there were no monastic communities within any of the
Anglican churches. Shortly after the
Oxford Movement began to advocate restoring
catholic faith and practice to the
Church of England (see
Anglo-Catholicism), there was felt to be a need for a restoration of the monastic life. Anglican
priest John Henry Newman established a community of men at
Littlemore near
Oxford in the 1840s while he was vicar of
Church of St Mary and St Nicholas, Littlemore. From then forward, there have been many communities of
monks,
friars, sisters, and
nuns established within the
Anglican Communion. In 1848, Mother
Priscilla Lydia Sellon founded the Anglican Sisters of Charity and became the first woman to take religious vows within the
Anglican Communion since the
Reformation. In October 1850 the first building specifically built for the purpose of housing an
Anglican Sisterhood was consecrated at Abbeymere in
Plymouth. It housed several schools for the destitute, a laundry, a printing press, and a soup kitchen. From the 1840s and throughout the following one hundred years, religious orders for both men and women proliferated in the UK and the United States, as well as in various countries of
Africa,
Asia,
Canada, India and the
Pacific. Some Anglican religious communities are contemplative, some active, but a distinguishing feature of the monastic life among Anglicans is that most practice the so-called "mixed life", a combination of a life of contemplative prayer with active service. Anglican religious life closely mirrors that of
Roman Catholicism. Like Roman Catholic religious, Anglican religious also take the three vows of poverty, chastity, and obedience. Religious communities live together under a common rule, reciting the
Divine Office and celebrating the
Eucharist daily. In the early 20th century when the
Anglo-Catholic movement was at its height, the
Anglican Communion had hundreds of orders and communities, and thousands of religious. However, since the 1960s there has been a sharp falling off in the numbers of religious in many parts of the Anglican Communion, most notably in the United Kingdom and the United States. In the last few decades of the 20th century, novices have for most communities been few and far between. Some orders and communities have already become extinct. There are, however, still thousands of Anglican religious working today in religious communities around the world. While vocations remain few in some areas, Anglican religious communities are experiencing exponential growth in
Africa,
Asia, and
Oceania. Around 1964, Reuben Archer Torrey III, an Episcopal missionary, grandson of
R. A. Torrey, founded Jesus Abbey as a missionary community in
Korea. It has some links with the
Episcopal Church and holds an
Evangelical doctrine.
Methodist Churches In February 2001, the
United Methodist Church organized the
Saint Brigid of Kildare Monastery. It is a Methodist-Benedictine residential
double monastery in
Collegeville, Minnesota. Besides monastic orders, the
Order of Saint Luke is a dispersed religious order within Methodism.
Presbyterian Churches The Community of the Sisterhood Emmanuel was founded in 1973 in
Makak, Cameroon, in the Centre Province by Mother Marie, one of the first female Pastors of the Presbyterian Church in Cameroon. In 1975, she moved the community to Agyati in Bafut. In 2019, the sisters relocated to Foumbot. The Sisters are trained in strong collaboration with the sister Institutes of the Catholic Church.
Anabaptism Anabaptist Christians "retained many elements of the monastic understanding of a 'holy life' that followed true faith". The
Hutterites and
Bruderhof, for example, live in intentional communities with their big houses having "ground floors for common work, meals and worship, the two-storey attics with small rooms, like monastic cells, for married couples".
Quakerism and Shakerism The
Shakers, who are also known as the "Shaking Quakers", have been characterized as a "Protestant monastic order providing refuge and otherworldly compensation". They practice a celibate and communal lifestyle,
pacifism, and their model of
equality of the sexes, which they institutionalized in their society in the 1780s. They are also known for their simple living, architecture, and furniture. Sincere newcomers are invited to become Shakers: Currently, there are two remaining Shakers, Brother Arnold Hadd and Sister June Carpenter, though they hope that others will join them at the only remaining Shaker community, the
Sabbathday Lake Shaker Village. ==Ecumenical expressions==