Emergence of the Israelite culture Efforts to confirm the biblical ethnogenesis of Israel through
archaeology have largely been abandoned as unproductive.
Josephus quoting
Manetho identifies them with the
Hyksos. Other scholars believe that the Exodus narrative was a "
collective memory" of several events from the Bronze Age. In addition, it is unlikely that the Israelites overtook the
southern Levant by force, according to archaeological evidence. Instead, they branched out of indigenous
Canaanite peoples that long inhabited the region, which included Syria,
ancient Israel, and the
Transjordan region. Their culture was
monolatristic, with a primary focus on Yahweh (or El) worship, but after the Babylonian exile, it became
monotheistic, with partial influence from
Zoroastrianism. The latter decisively separated the Israelites from other Canaanites. Genetic studies show that contemporary ethnicities in the Levant were, like Israel, distinguished by their unique cultures, due to their descent from a common ancestral stock. depicting precursors of the Israelites in Canaan: Canaanites from
city-states and a Shasu leader.|upright=0.7 Several theories exist for the origins of historical Israelites. Some believe they descend from raiding groups, itinerant nomads such as
Habiru and
Shasu or impoverished Canaanites, who were forced to leave wealthy urban areas and live in the highlands. The prevailing academic opinion is that the Israelites were a mixture of peoples predominately indigenous to Canaan, with additional input from an Egyptian matrix of peoples, which most likely inspired the Exodus narrative. Israel's demographics were similar to the demographics of
Ammon,
Edom,
Moab and
Phoenicia. But what distinguished Israelite circumcision from non-Israelite circumcision was its emphasis on 'correct' timing. Israelite circumcision also served as a
mnemonic sign for the circumcised, where their 'unnatural' erect circumcised penis would remind them to behave differently in sexual matters. , seen by many archaeologists as an early Israelite cultic siteGenealogy was another ethnic marker. While it was likely that Israelite identity was not exclusively
based on blood descent, the Israelites used genealogy to engage in
narcissism of small differences but also,
self-criticism since their ancestors included morally questionable characters such as Jacob. Both these traits represented the "complexities of the Jewish soul". the early Israelites may have wore the same attire and hairstyles as non-Israelite Canaanites. Dissenting from this,
Anson Rainey argued that the Israelites in the reliefs looked more similar to the Shasu. Based on biblical literature, it is implied that the Israelites distinguished themselves from peoples like the Babylonians and Egyptians by not having long beards and chin tufts. However, these fashion practices were upper class customs.
Early highland settlements in Canaan In the 12th century BCE, many Israelite settlements appeared in the central hill country of Canaan, which was formerly an open terrain. These settlements lacked evidence of pork consumption, compared to Philistine settlements, had
four-room houses and lived by an
egalitarian ethos, which was exemplified by the absence of elaborate tombs, governor's mansions, certain houses being bigger than others etc. They followed a
mixed economy, which prioritized
self-sufficiency,
cultivation of crops,
animal husbandry and
small-scale craft production. New technologies such as
terraced farming,
silos for grain storage and
cisterns for rainwater collection were simultaneously introduced. These settlements were built by inhabitants of the "general Southland" (i.e. modern
Sinai and the southern parts of
Israel and
Jordan), who abandoned their pastoral-nomadic ways. Canaanites who lived outside the central hill country were tenuously identified as Danites, Asherites, Zebulunites, Issacharites, Naphtalites and Gadites. These inhabitants do not have a significant history of migration besides the Danites, who allegedly originate from the
Sea Peoples, particularly the
Dan(an)u. Nonetheless, they intermingled with the former nomads, due to socioeconomic and military factors. Their interest in Yahwism and its concern for the underprivileged was another factor. Possible allusions to this historical reality in the Hebrew Bible include the aforementioned tribes, except for Issachar and Zebulun, descending from
Bilhah and
Zilpah, who were viewed as "secondary additions" to Israel. Himbaza et al. (2012) states that Israelite households were typically ill-equipped to handle conflicts between family members, which may explain the harsh sexual taboos enforced against acts like
incest,
homosexuality,
polygamy etc. in . While the
death penalty was legislated for these 'secret crimes', they functioned as a warning, where offenders would confess out of fear and make appropriate reparations.
Historicity of the United Monarchy , 841–840 BCE. The historicity of the United Monarchy is heavily debated among archaeologists and biblical scholars: biblical maximalists and centrists (
Kenneth Kitchen,
William G. Dever,
Amihai Mazar,
Baruch Halpern and others) argue that the biblical account is more or less accurate, while biblical minimalists (
Israel Finkelstein,
Ze'ev Herzog,
Thomas L. Thompson and others) argue that Israel and Judah never split from a singular state. The debate has not been resolved, but recent archaeological discoveries by
Eilat Mazar and
Yosef Garfinkel show some support for the existence of the United Monarchy.
Kingdoms of Israel and Judah , son of
Ahaz,
king of Judah" –
royal seal found at the
Ophel excavations in
Jerusalem Compared to the United Monarchy, the historicity of the Kingdom of Israel and Judah is widely accepted by historians and archaeologists. Their destruction by the Assyrians and Babylonians respectively is also confirmed by archaeological evidence and extrabiblical sources. Frevel has also argued that Judah was a 'vassal-like' state to Israel, under the
Omrides. Avraham Faust argues that there was continued adherence to the 'ethos of egalitarianism and simplicity' in the Iron Age II (10th-6th century BCE). For example, there is minimal evidence of temples and complex tomb burials, despite Israel and Judah being more densely populated than the Late Bronze Age. Four-room houses remained the norm. In addition, royal inscriptions were scarce, along with imported and decorated pottery. According to
William G. Dever, Israelite identity in the 9th-8th centuries BCE can be identified through a combination of archaeological and cultural traits that distinguish them from their neighbours. These traits include being born and living within the territorial borders of Israel or Judah, speaking Hebrew, living in specific house types, using locally produced pottery, and following particular burial practices. Israelites were also part of a rural kin-based society, and adhered to Yahwism, though not necessarily in a monotheistic way. Their material culture was simple but distinct, and their societal organization was centered around family and inheritance. These traits, while shared with some neighbouring peoples, were uniquely Israelite in their specific combination.
Wars with Assyria and Babylonia The Kingdom of Israel
was conquered by the
Neo-Assyrian Empire around 720
BCE. The records of
Sargon II of
Assyria indicate that he deported part of the population to Assyria. Some Israelites migrated to the southern kingdom of Judah, while those that remained in Samaria, concentrated mainly around
Mount Gerizim, developed a new ethnic identity as
Samaritans. Foreign groups were also settled by the Assyrians in the territories of the conquered kingdom. In their native
Samaritan Hebrew, the Samaritans identify as "Israel", "B'nai Israel" or "Shamerim/Shomerim" (i.e. "Guardians/Keepers/Watchers"). Despite this, belief in the
Ten Lost Tribes of Israel emerged because of the heavy assimilation faced by Samarian deportees. Towards the end of the same century, the Neo-Babylonian Empire emerged victorious over the Assyrians, leading to Judah's subjugation as a
vassal state. In the early 6th century BC, a series of
revolts in Judah prompted the Babylonian king
Nebuchadnezzar II to lay
siege to and destroy Jerusalem along with the
First Temple, marking the kingdom's demise. Subsequently, a segment of the Judahite populace was
exiled to Babylon in several waves. Judeans were progenitors of the Jewish people, who practised
Second Temple Judaism during the
Second Temple period.
Persian period With the fall of Babylon to the rising
Achaemenid Persian Empire, king
Cyrus the Great issued a proclamation known as the
Edict of Cyrus, encouraging the exiles to
return to their homeland after the Persians raised it as an autonomous Jewish-governed province named
Yehud. Under the Persians (), the returned Jewish population restored the city and rebuilt the Temple in Jerusalem. The
Cyrus Cylinder is controversially cited as evidence for Cyrus allowing the Judeans to return. The returnees showed a "heightened sense" of their ethnic identity and shunned
exogamy, which was treated as a "permissive reality" in Babylon. Circumcision was no longer a significant ethnic marker, with increased emphasis on genealogical descent or faith in Yahweh. Jason A. Staples argues that the majority of contemporary Jews, regardless of theology, wished for the reunion of northern Israelites and southern Jews and did not completely appropriate the Israel identity for themselves.
Hellenistic period In 332 BCE, the Achaemenid Empire fell to
Alexander the Great, and the region was later incorporated into the
Ptolemaic Kingdom () and the
Seleucid Empire (). The
Maccabean Revolt against Seleucid rule ushered in a period of nominal independence for the Jewish people under the
Hasmonean dynasty (140–37 BCE). Initially operating semi-autonomously within the Seleucid sphere, the Hasmoneans gradually asserted full independence through military conquest and diplomacy, establishing themselves as the final sovereign Jewish rulers before a prolonged hiatus in Jewish sovereignty in the region. Some scholars argue that Jews also engaged in active missionary efforts in the
Greco-Roman world, which led to conversions. Several scholars, such as
Scot McKnight and
Martin Goodman, reject this view while holding that conversions occasionally occurred. A similar diaspora existed for Samaritans but their existence is poorly documented.
Roman period In 63 BCE, the
Roman Republic conquered the kingdom. In 37 BCE, the Romans appointed
Herod the Great as king of
a vassal Judea. In 6 CE, Judea was fully incorporated into the
Roman Empire as the
province of Judaea. During this period, the main areas of Jewish settlement in the Land of Israel were Judea,
Galilee and
Perea, while the Samaritans had their demographic center in
Samaria. Growing dissatisfaction with
Roman rule and civil disturbances eventually led to the
First Jewish–Roman War (66–73 CE), resulting in the destruction of Jerusalem and its Temple, which ended the
Second Temple period. This event marked a cataclysmic moment in Jewish history, prompting a reconfiguration of Jewish identity and practice to ensure continuity. The cessation of Temple worship and disappearance of Temple-based sects facilitated the rise of
Rabbinic Judaism, which stemmed from the
Pharisaic school of Second Temple Judaism, emphasizing
communal synagogue worship and
Torah study, eventually becoming the predominant expression of Judaism. Concurrently,
Christianity began to diverge from Judaism, evolving into a predominantly
Gentile religion. Decades later, the
Bar Kokhba revolt (132–135 CE) further diminished the Jewish presence in
Judea, leading to a geographical shift of Jewish life to Galilee and
Babylonia, with smaller communities scattered across the
Mediterranean. ==Genetic studies and descendants==