The philosophical
dialogues of ancient Greek and Roman writers such as
Plato were written in the form of conversations between "characters" and are in this respect similar to closet drama, many of which feature little action but are often rich in philosophical rhetoric. Beginning with
Friedrich von Schlegel, many have argued that the
tragedies of
Seneca the Younger in the first century AD were written to be recited at small parties rather than performed. Although that theory has become widely pervasive in the history of theater, there is no evidence to support the contention that Seneca's plays were intended to be read or recited at small gatherings of the wealthy. The emperor
Nero, a pupil of Seneca, may have performed in some of them. Some of the drama of the
Middle Ages was of the closet-drama type, such as the drama of
Hroswitha of Gandersheim and
debate poems in quasi-dramatic form. Between 1642 and 1660, the English government
banned public performance. During this time, playreading became a "substitute" for playgoing. Thus, playwrights were moved to take on "propagandist aims" against parliament and topics beyond the theatre in their writing, meaning reading such work could be considered a revolutionary act. However, playwrights could write in relative security, protected by the anonymous means of print.
Thomas Killigrew is an example of a stage playwright who turned to this form of writing when his plays could no longer be produced during this period; he was in exile from England during the
English Civil War. Following the
Restoration in 1660, some authors continued to write in this form, proving in the view of some modern academics that the form "served a cultural function distinct from that of commercial drama."
John Milton's play
Samson Agonistes, written in 1671, is an example of
early modern drama never intended for the stage.
Nineteenth century Several closet dramas in
verse were written in Europe after 1800; these plays were by and large inspired by classical models.
Faust, Part 1 and
Faust, Part 2 by
Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, among the most acclaimed pieces in the history of
German literature, were written as closet dramas, though both plays have been frequently staged.
Lord Byron,
Percy Bysshe Shelley, and
Alexander Pushkin devoted much time to the closet drama. The popularity of closet drama at this time was both a sign of, and a reaction to, the decline of the verse
tragedy on the European stage in the 1800s. Popular tastes in theater were shifting toward
melodrama and
comedy and there was little commercial appeal in staging verse tragedies (though
Coleridge,
Robert Browning, and others wrote verse dramas that were staged in commercial theaters). Playwrights who wanted to write verse tragedy had to resign themselves to writing for readers, rather than actors and audiences. Nineteenth-century closet drama became a longer poetic form, without the connection to practical theater and performance. == Early women writers in the closet drama form==