Confessional state

In a 2002 Journal of Ecumenical Studies article, Practice in Religion, Ethnicity, and International Conflict Harvard Divinity School professor David Little identified "ethnic and religious" inclusiveness in religious nationalism causing tensions as well as shifts from ethnic to civic nationalism. He evaluated the religious nationalism of Christianity, with nationalism as "may [be understood] as the impulse of an ethnic group to claim the right to participate in the government of a given territory", presumably also manifesting in the form of state-level religious affiliation, and religious nationalism as "may mean the impulse of the group in question to invoke a religious warrant for its claim to such a right." Subscribing to "the literature [that it] is divided into two basic types: 'ethnic' and 'civic'", accepting that "religious people do perform [giving religious reasons for ethnocratic rule], thus contributing, it would appear, to the violence that so often attends one ethnic group's drive for political domination", Little nonetheless concludes that "throughout the course of Christian history" that in response to "Christians [that] advocate one or another version of ethnocratic rule", "[...] there are strong [Christian] dissenting voices that are dedicated to promoting ethnic and religious inclusiveness based on tolerance and equality in the civic order." A danger from religious nationalism is that when the state derives political legitimacy from adherence to religious doctrines, this may leave an opening to overtly religious elements, institutions, and leaders, making the appeals to religion more 'authentic' by bringing more explicitly theological interpretations to political life. Thus, appeals to religion as a marker of ethnicity create an opening for more strident and ideological interpretations of religious nationalism. ==Modern times==

The confessional state is largely gone in the Western World, although in the Middle East, the confessional state still commonly exists, as well as many post-partition of the Ottoman Empire states and Iran having established confessionalism. Today, many Muslim-majority countries have incorporated Islamic law in part into their legal systems. Islamic states which are not Islamic monarchies are usually referred to as Islamic republics, such as Pakistan and the previously mentioned Iran, both are moderately common in the Muslim world. A number of modern countries, such as Tunisia, have state religions; they usually also allow freedom of religion. ==Civic nationalist confessional state==

Scotland During the Scottish Reformation, in the beginning of Scottish Presbyterianism, the interpretation of various religious figures being rebuked by their superiors enabled a "radical" check and balance by Scottish covenanters to bind the monarch by law and subject them to divine authority. United States Several of the Thirteen Colonies were confessional states, although of different denominations, before the American Revolution; Connecticut remained one until 1818. Other American states required each town or individual to support some religious body, without the state deciding which one; but this was also abolished, the last instance being Massachusetts, which restricted the obligation in 1821 and ended it in 1843. ==Modern==

England The 1646 Westminster Confession of Faith Genevan approach associated with John Calvin was in favor of limiting from the Christian ruler the role of the church in administering discipline, up to excommunication, while affirming their duty to promote and protect true religion. It persists, with reduced political power, as an Anglican confessional state. Russia Russia is formally secular but its government strongly promotes and relies on Eastern Orthodoxy and its values. Costa Rica A Catholic confessional state. Egypt In 2015, President Abdel Fattah el-Sisi of Egypt, with "his professed goal [...] to purge [Islam] of extremist ideas of intolerance and violence that fuel groups like al-Qaida and the Islamic State", "[used] government religious institutions like the 1,000-year-old al-Azhar, one of the most eminent centers of Sunni Muslim thought and teaching." Indonesia Indonesia is formally secular but a presidential edict enacted by Sukarno in 1965 explicitly stated that "the religions professed by Indonesians are Islam, [Protestant] Christianity, Catholic[ism], Hindu[ism], [Buddhism], and Kong Fuzi (Confucious)." Confucianism was banned during the New Order, while those not professing the other five religions were forced to convert to receive government service. ==Modern theocratic==

Saudi Arabia Saudi Arabia is a state incorporating Islamic law in full into their legal system. Vatican City Vatican City is a Christian state whose legal system is rooted in canon law. Pakistan Pakistan is a former ethnic nationalist theocratic confessional state. In 1980, Pakistan's separate electoral system for different religions has been described as 'political Apartheid'. Hindu community leader Sudham Chand protested against the system but was murdered. In 1999, Pakistan abolished this system. Other writers view the notion as theocratic. ==See also==